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A Disease with Dual Impacts: Leptospirosis in Humans and Livestock

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A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 May 2021) | Viewed by 26808

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Michael J. Maze

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Guest Editor

University of Otago, New Zealand
Interests: leptospirosis; zoonoses; respiratory infection

Prof. Dr. Jackie Benschop

E-Mail Website
Co-Guest Editor

Molecular Epidemiology and Public Health Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North
Interests: disease at the human-animal interface, cross-sector collaboration, science communication and mentoring of staff and students

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Leptospirosis is a zoonosis with dual impacts on people and their livestock. Leptospirosis is a preventable infectious disease, but efforts to prevent leptospirosis infection in rural areas of many countries are hampered by lack of evidence as to the burden of disease in humans and animals, and from incomplete understanding of the epidemiology of human leptospirosis, including the role of livestock as a source of transmission.

Data documenting the magnitude of the impact of leptospirosis in humans and livestock are limited in many parts of the world, including in regions where modelling predicts a high incidence of human leptospirosis. In particular, data are needed on non-fatal sequelae of leptospirosis in humans, and the health and reproductive effects of various Leptospira serovars in livestock. In addition, there is insufficient understanding of the transmission of livestock leptospirosis to humans, and the role of wildlife in transmission of leptospirosis between livestock. Such research will be critical in efforts to prevent leptospirosis.

This Special Issue of Pathogens aims to bring together articles that enhance our understanding of the intersection between livestock and human leptospirosis and point the way to prevention strategies, particularly in high-incidence countries. We seek original articles that investigate:

Leptospirosis epidemiology in humans;
Leptospirosis epidemiology in livestock;
The role of wildlife in transmitting Leptospira to humans or livestock;
The health effects and outcomes in humans or livestock.

Dr. Michael J. Maze
Prof. Dr. Jackie Benschop
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Leptospira
zoonoses
epidemiology

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 1423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Current Evidence on the Antimicrobial Treatment and Chemoprophylaxis of Human Leptospirosis: A Meta-Analysis

by Marta Guzmán Pérez, José Javier Blanch Sancho, Juan Carlos Segura Luque, Fernando Mateos Rodriguez, Elisa Martínez Alfaro and Julián Solís García del Pozo

Pathogens 2021, 10(9), 1125; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091125 - 2 Sep 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5294

Abstract

Background: Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonotic infection, and its management needs to be refined. This study aims to discern which antibiotic would be the best option to treat leptospirosis disease and analyze the efficacy of chemoprophylaxis regimens to prevent this illness. Methods: systematic review and meta-analysis on the efficacy of antibiotic treatment and chemoprophylaxis of leptospirosis in humans. Results: Ten clinical trials compared an antibiotic treatment with placebo or other antibiotic treatments in leptospirosis (the most recent one was published in 2007). The meta-analysis shows no effect of penicillin treatment on mortality compared to placebo (OR 1.65; 95% CI 0.76–3.57; p = 0.21). There are no differences between penicillin and cephalosporins or doxycycline. Penicillin does not reduce the time of defervescence (MD-0.16; 95% CI (−1.4) –1.08; p = 0.80) nor hospital stay (MD 0.15; 95% CI (−0.75)–1.06; p = 0.74). Besides, the data did not demonstrate any effectiveness of the use of penicillin in terms of the incidence of oliguria/anuria, the need for dialysis treatment, time to creatinine normalization, incidence of jaundice, or the liver function normalization time. Eight trials have assessed prophylactic treatment against leptospirosis with different strategies. A weekly dose of 200 mg of doxycycline does not show benefit versus placebo regarding the number of new cases of symptomatic leptospirosis (OR 0.20; 95% CI 0.02–1.87; p = 0.16). A single dose of doxycycline at exposure to flood water could have a beneficial effect (OR 0.23; 95% CI 0.07–0.77; p = 0.02). None of the other chemoprophylaxis regimens tested have shown a statistically significant effect on the number of new symptomatic cases. Conclusion: There is no evidence that antibiotics are a better treatment than placebo regarding mortality, shortening of fever, liver and kidney function, or reduction in the hospital stay. On the other hand, neither doxycycline nor penicillin, nor azithromycin have shown statistically significant differences in preventing symptomatic infection. Well-designed clinical trials, including other antibiotics such as quinolones or aminoglycosides, are urgently needed to improve our understanding of the treatment for this infection, which continues to be a neglected disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Disease with Dual Impacts: Leptospirosis in Humans and Livestock)

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9 pages, 964 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Seroepidemiology of a Neglected Zoonotic and Livestock Pathogen in Free-Ranging Bovids: Leptospirosis in African Buffaloes (Syncerus caffer)

by Wynand Goosen, Mark Hamish Moseley, Tanya Jane Kerr, Andrew Potts and Michele Miller

Pathogens 2021, 10(9), 1072; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091072 - 24 Aug 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2086

Abstract

Multi-host pathogens are challenging to control and are responsible for some of the most important diseases of humans, livestock, and wildlife. Leptospira spp. are some of the most common multi-host pathogens and represent an important cause of zoonotic infections and livestock productivity loss in the developing world, where contact with wildlife species is common. Although there is increasing evidence that cattle in Africa harbour a broad diversity of Leptospira genotypes and serovars, little is known about the epidemiology of these pathogens in wild bovids, such as African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer). Using microscopic agglutination testing (MAT) on serum samples collected from free-ranging buffaloes (n = 98) captured in the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP), South Africa, we demonstrated an overall seroprevalence of 21% with seropositivity almost exclusively limited to serovar Tarassovi (serogroup Tarassovi). Moreover, we found no evidence of seropositivity in unweaned calves and showed temporal- or herd-specific variation in exposure risk, and increased probability of seropositivity (OR = 5.44, 95% CI = 1.4–27) in female buffaloes. Together, these findings demonstrate that free-ranging African buffaloes are exposed to Leptospira spp. infections, providing insights into the epidemiology of an emerging Leptospira serovar in herds with an absence of any disease control and minimal management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Disease with Dual Impacts: Leptospirosis in Humans and Livestock)

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12 pages, 2477 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leptospira Seropositivity in Humans, Livestock and Wild Animals in a Semi-Arid Area of Tanzania

by Georgies F. Mgode, Ginethon G. Mhamphi, Apia W. Massawe and Robert S. Machang’u

Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 696; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060696 - 3 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2459

Abstract

Background: Leptospirosis is among the major neglected zoonoses in developing countries. The prevalence of leptospirosis remains underestimated in many African countries because of limited diagnostic facilities. We studied Leptospira seropositivity prevalence in humans, sheep, goats and rodents in a semi-arid region of central Tanzania and compared findings with reports from humid tropical areas. The aims were to establish the disease burden in different settings; understand circulating Leptospira serovars and potential major reservoirs for establishing appropriate control measures. Methods: Humans, sheep, goats, rodents and shrews (insectivores) were sampled from Bahi district, a semi-arid area in central Tanzania. Samples were tested for leptospiral antibodies using microscopic agglutination test (MAT) consisting of Leptospira serovars mainly reported in Tanzania and reference strains. Findings were compared with previous data to determine the disease epidemiological patterns. Results and conclusion: Semi-arid area showed high Leptospira seropositivity prevalence in humans and domestic animals due to intensive human–animal interactions at scarce water points and by flash flooding which occur in the area. Rodent population in the semi-arid areas was relatively low due to flooding. Leptospira seropositivity in rodents was also slightly lower, and the rodents appeared to be prolific breeders, probably as a means to compensate for the lost population during extreme drought as well as during short spells of floods. Intensive human–animal interaction in the semi-arid areas especially, in water sources in valleys where human and animals often meet, likely increased the risk of leptospirosis transmission to rice farmers in the area. Goats and sheep which are kept around homesteads had higher leptospiral antibodies prevalence (62%), nearly double of the 38% reported in same species in humid tropical regions of Tanzania. Livestock, especially goats and sheep, could be the major source of leptospirosis transmission to humans. Vaccination of livestock with vaccines against local Leptospira strains should be encouraged, and rodent control emphasized, as part of a management strategy against leptospirosis. Public awareness of leptospirosis must also be raised and supported by availability of rapid test kits in clinics for preliminary testing of leptospirosis in people with fevers of unknown origin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Disease with Dual Impacts: Leptospirosis in Humans and Livestock)

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6 pages, 235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Serological Survey of Leptospira Infection in Arabian Horses in Poland

by Bernard Wasiński, Katarzyna Paschalis-Trela, Jan Trela, Michał Czopowicz, Jerzy Kita, Monika Żychska, Anna Cywińska, Iwona Markowska-Daniel, Craig Carter and Lucjan Witkowski

Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 688; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060688 - 1 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2288

Abstract

Leptospirosis is one of the most common zoonotic infections worldwide, including in most livestock, some companion animals, horses, wildlife, and humans. Epidemiological estimation of its prevalence in all species is difficult due to the variety of clinical presentations and challenges regarding laboratory diagnosis. The purpose of this study was to measure the seroprevalence of leptospiral infection in Arabian horses kept in the largest breeding farms in Poland, representing over 15% of the Polish Arabian horse population. Leptospira antibodies were detected by MAT (cut-off 1:100) in 33.2% of serum samples (204 of 615 animals) (CI 95%: 29.6–37.0%), most frequently reacting with the serovar Grippotyphosa, similar to previous reports in populations of randomly selected horses. These results indicated high Leptospira seropositivity, thus, although any form of clinical leptospirosis is rare, it may be postulated that the leptospiral exposure is widespread. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Disease with Dual Impacts: Leptospirosis in Humans and Livestock)

10 pages, 511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Betrand Msemwa, Mariam M. Mirambo, Vitus Silago, Juma M. Samson, Khadija S. Majid, Ginethon Mhamphi, Joseph Genchwere, Subira S. Mwakabumbe, Elifuraha B. Mngumi, Georgies Mgode and Stephen E. Mshana

Pathogens 2021, 10(5), 609; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10050609 - 16 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2409

Abstract

This study investigated seroepidemiology of Leptospira serovars among the dog keepers and their dogs in the city of Mwanza, Tanzania. A total of 205 dog keepers and 414 dogs were tested for Leptospira antibodies using a microscopic agglutination test (MAT). The median age of the dog keepers was 26 (inter quartile range (IQR): 17–40) years and median duration of keeping dogs was 36 (IQR: 24–120) months. The seropositivity of Leptospira antibodies was (33/205 (16.1%, 95% CI: 11.0–21.1) among dog keepers and (66/414 (15.9%, 95% CI: 12.4–19.4) among dogs, p = 0.4745. Among the serovars tested (Sokoine, Grippotyphosa, Kenya, Pomona and Hebdomadis), the most prevalent serovar was Sokoine in both dog keepers and their dogs (93.9% (31/33) vs. and 65.1% (43/66), p = 0.009). Thirty-one out of thirty-three seropositive dog keepers (93.9%) had dogs positive for Leptospira antibodies with 28 (84.9%) having similar serovars with their respective seropositive dogs. Having tertiary education (AOR: 0.24, 95% CI: 0.07–0.84, p = 0.026) independently protected individuals from being Leptospira seropositive. More than three quarters of dog keepers had similar serovars as their dogs, necessitating one health approach to control measures in endemic areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Disease with Dual Impacts: Leptospirosis in Humans and Livestock)

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9 pages, 682 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. in Horses in Israel

by Sharon Tirosh-Levy, Miri Baum, Gili Schvartz, Boaz Kalir, Oren Pe’er, Anat Shnaiderman-Torban, Michael Bernstein, Shlomo E. Blum and Amir Steinman

Pathogens 2021, 10(4), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10040408 - 1 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1849

Abstract

Leptospirosis has been reported in both humans and animals in Israel but has not been reported in horses. In 2018, an outbreak of Leptospira spp. serogroup Pomona was reported in humans and cattle in Israel. In horses, leptospirosis may cause equine recurrent uveitis (ERU). This report describes the first identification of Leptospira serogroup Pomona as the probable cause of ERU in horses in Israel, followed by an epidemiological investigation of equine exposure in the area. Serologic exposure to Leptospira was determined by microscopic agglutination test (MAT) using eight serovars. In 2017, serovar Pomona was identified in a mare with signs of ERU. Seven of thirteen horses from that farm were seropositive for serogroup Pomona, of which three had signs of ERU. During the same time period, 14/70 horses from three other farms were positive for serogroup Pomona. In 2015, two years prior to this diagnosis, 259 horses from 21 farms were sampled and one horse tested seropositive for serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae. In 2018, one year later, 337 horses were sampled on 29 farms, with none testing seropositive. Although horses are not considered a major host of Leptospira spp., it appears that horses may be infected, and clinically affected, in the course of an outbreak in other species. The identification of leptospirosis in stabled horses may impose a significant zoonotic risk to people. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Disease with Dual Impacts: Leptospirosis in Humans and Livestock)

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16 pages, 839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exposure to Leptospira spp. and Associated Risk Factors in the Human, Cattle and Dog Populations in Bhutan

by Anou Dreyfus, Marie-Thérèse Ruf, Anne Mayer-Scholl, Theresa Zitzl, Nadine Loosli, Nadja Seyhan Bier, Stephanie Hiereth, Sebastian Ulrich, Sven Poppert, Reinhard K. Straubinger, John Stenos and Tshokey Tshokey

Pathogens 2021, 10(3), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030308 - 6 Mar 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3019

Abstract

Leptospirosis is a neglected worldwide zoonotic bacterial disease with a high prevalence in subtropical and tropical countries. The prevalence of Leptospira spp. in humans, cattle and dogs is unknown in Bhutan. Therefore, we sought to find out whether humans, cattle or dogs had been infected in the past with leptospires by measuring antibodies in the serum. We therefore collected blood from 864 humans ≥13 years of age, 130 bovines and 84 dogs from different rural and urban areas in Bhutan and tested the serum for antibodies specific for leptospires with a screening of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and a confirmatory microscopic agglutination test (MAT). In humans, 17.6% were seropositive by ELISA and 1.6% by MAT. The seropositivity was stronger in bovines (36.9%) and dogs (47.6%). “Having had a fever recently” (OR 5.2, p = 0.004), “working for the military” (OR 26.6, p = 0.028) and “being unemployed” (OR 12.9, p = 0.041) (reference category = housemaker) were statistically significantly associated with seropositivity when controlled for the effects of other risk factors. However, due to the small number of positive test results, the findings on risk factors should be interpreted with caution. Based on the serogroups found in the three species, dogs could be a source of infection for humans, or dogs and humans are exposed to the same environmental risk factors Clinical leptospirosis in humans and domestic animals should be investigated by testing blood and urine for the presence of leptospires by molecular methods (qPCR). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Disease with Dual Impacts: Leptospirosis in Humans and Livestock)

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12 pages, 2800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Persistence of Leptospira borgpetersenii Serovar Hardjo in Refrigerated Raw Milk: A Transmission Risk of Leptospirosis to Humans

by Elisa Mazzotta, Letizia Ceglie, Isabella Giurisato, Laura Bellinati, Laura Lucchese, Silvia Marchione and Alda Natale

Pathogens 2021, 10(3), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030291 - 3 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1960

Abstract

Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo (LH) is an important infectious agent of reproduction pathologies and lactation decline in cattle, with a possible zoonotic role. To figure out the potential zoonotic risk for human raw-milk consumption, the present study aims at assessing the persistence and viability of LH in refrigerated raw milk over a 10-day period, which is set as the maximum time range for raw-milk domestic consumption. A negative sample of fresh raw milk was contaminated with an LH strain (2 × 10⁸ Leptospires/mL) and analyzed by a rrs (16S) gene targeting real-time PCR (rPCR) protocol for LH DNA at days 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, and 10. Seven aliquots of the same sampling time were inoculated into a semisolid EMJH media for bacterial culture. All aliquots tested positive in both rPCR and culture, which demonstrates that raw milk does not alter the detectability and viability of LH, respectively. The analytical sensitivity (LoD, limit of detection) determined for the rPCR (103 Leptospires/mL) was repeatable during the study, whereas it gradually decreased when it came to the bacterial culture. This study demonstrates that bovine raw milk might be a potential vehicle of infection by LH, even when storage conditions are strictly respected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Disease with Dual Impacts: Leptospirosis in Humans and Livestock)

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16 pages, 2161 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diverse Epidemiology of Leptospira Serovars Notified in New Zealand, 1999–2017

by Shahista Nisa, David A. Wilkinson, Olivia Angelin-Bonnet, Shevaun Paine, Karen Cullen, Jackie Wright, Michael G. Baker and Jackie Benschop

Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100841 - 14 Oct 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3948

Abstract

Leptospirosis in New Zealand has been strongly associated with animal-contact occupations and with serovars Hardjo and Pomona. However, recent data suggest changes in these patterns, hence, serovar-specific epidemiology of leptospirosis from 1999 to 2017 was investigated. The 19-year average annual incidence is 2.01/100,000. Early (1999–2007) and late (2008–2017) study period comparisons showed a significant increase in notifications with serovar Ballum (IRR: 1.59, 95% CI: 1.22–2.09) in all cases and serovar Tarassovi (IRR: 1.75, 95% CI: 1.13–2.78) in Europeans and a decrease in notifications with serovars Hardjo and Pomona in all cases. Incidences of Ballum peaked in winter, Hardjo peaked in spring and Tarassovi peaked in summer. Incidence was highest in Māori (2.24/100,000) with dominant serovars being Hardjo and Pomona. Stratification by occupation showed meat workers had the highest incidence of Hardjo (57.29/100,000) and Pomona (45.32/100,000), farmers had the highest incidence of Ballum (11.09/100,000) and dairy farmers had the highest incidence of Tarassovi (12.59/100,000). Spatial analysis showed predominance of Hardjo and Pomona in Hawke’s Bay, Ballum in West Coast and Northland and Tarassovi in Waikato, Taranaki and Northland. This study highlights the serovar-specific heterogeneity of human leptospirosis in New Zealand that should be considered when developing control and prevention strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Disease with Dual Impacts: Leptospirosis in Humans and Livestock)

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