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Nutrients
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Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health
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Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health

A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Nutrition and Metabolism".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2020) | Viewed by 57951

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Albertino Bigiani

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Metaboliche e Neuroscienze, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
Interests: taste transduction; sodium reception; epithelial sodium channel; taste cells; salt taste; ion channels; membrane excitability; gustation; taste alterations

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Salt (NaCl) is a key component of human diet, for it provides sodium ions (Na+) required to maintain proper extracellular fluid volume and to allow many physiological processes to occur. The need for salt explains our ability to detect Na+ in foodstuffs: Na+ elicits a specific taste sensation called “salty”, and gustatory sensitivity to this cation is crucial for regulating its intake. Indeed, the widespread use of salt in food products for flavouring and to improve their palatability exploits our keen taste for Na+. When consumed in excess, however, Na+ might be detrimental for health because it increases blood pressure by expanding, through water retention, blood volume. This has prompted food scientists to search for salt taste modifiers to reduce salt content in food products without affecting flavour and consumer acceptance. It is clear from these considerations that research on salt taste mechanisms provides an important avenue for improving human nutrition in health and disease.

Despite the fundamental role of salt taste in affecting diet selection, nutrition, and health, these relationships are only partially understood. In this Special Issue of Nutrients, entitled "Salt Taste, Nutrition and Health”, we invite original research communications and reviews dealing with all aspects of salt taste mechanisms relevant for food flavouring, nutrition and health.

Prof. Albertino Bigiani

Guest Editor

Keywords

  • central processing
  • cross-modal interactions
  • eating behavior
  • food additives
  • hormonal control
  • oral salt detection
  • salt appetite
  • salt boosters
  • salt taste preference
  • taste alterations
  • taste modifiers

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

6 pages, 470 KiB  
Editorial
Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health
by Albertino Bigiani
Nutrients 2020, 12(5), 1537; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051537 - 25 May 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6566
Abstract
The sodium ion (Na+) is essential for life [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health)
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Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

19 pages, 2400 KiB  
Article
Kokumi Taste Active Peptides Modulate Salt and Umami Taste
by Mee-Ra Rhyu, Ah-Young Song, Eun-Young Kim, Hee-Jin Son, Yiseul Kim, Shobha Mummalaneni, Jie Qian, John R. Grider and Vijay Lyall
Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 1198; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041198 - 24 Apr 2020
Cited by 57 | Viewed by 7473
Abstract
Kokumi taste substances exemplified by γ-glutamyl peptides and Maillard Peptides modulate salt and umami tastes. However, the underlying mechanism for their action has not been delineated. Here, we investigated the effects of a kokumi taste active and inactive peptide fraction (500–10,000 Da) isolated [...] Read more.
Kokumi taste substances exemplified by γ-glutamyl peptides and Maillard Peptides modulate salt and umami tastes. However, the underlying mechanism for their action has not been delineated. Here, we investigated the effects of a kokumi taste active and inactive peptide fraction (500–10,000 Da) isolated from mature (FIIm) and immature (FIIim) Ganjang, a typical Korean soy sauce, on salt and umami taste responses in humans and rodents. Only FIIm (0.1–1.0%) produced a biphasic effect in rat chorda tympani (CT) taste nerve responses to lingual stimulation with 100 mM NaCl + 5 μM benzamil, a specific epithelial Na+ channel blocker. Both elevated temperature (42 °C) and FIIm produced synergistic effects on the NaCl + benzamil CT response. At 0.5% FIIm produced the maximum increase in rat CT response to NaCl + benzamil, and enhanced salt taste intensity in human subjects. At 2.5% FIIm enhanced rat CT response to glutamate that was equivalent to the enhancement observed with 1 mM IMP. In human subjects, 0.3% FIIm produced enhancement of umami taste. These results suggest that FIIm modulates amiloride-insensitive salt taste and umami taste at different concentration ranges in rats and humans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health)
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22 pages, 600 KiB  
Article
The Association between Salt Taste Perception, Mediterranean Diet and Metabolic Syndrome: A Cross-Sectional Study
by Nikolina Nika Veček, Lana Mucalo, Ružica Dragun, Tanja Miličević, Ajka Pribisalić, Inga Patarčić, Caroline Hayward, Ozren Polašek and Ivana Kolčić
Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 1164; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041164 - 22 Apr 2020
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 5739
Abstract
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a widespread disorder and an important public health challenge. The purpose of this study was to identify the association between salt taste perception, Mediterranean diet and MetS. This cross-sectional study included 2798 subjects from the general population of Dalmatia, [...] Read more.
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a widespread disorder and an important public health challenge. The purpose of this study was to identify the association between salt taste perception, Mediterranean diet and MetS. This cross-sectional study included 2798 subjects from the general population of Dalmatia, Croatia. MetS was determined using the Joint Interim Statement definition, and Mediterranean diet compliance was estimated using Mediterranean Diet Serving Score. Salt taste perception was assessed by threshold and suprathreshold testing (intensity and hedonic perception). Logistic regression was used in the analysis, adjusting for important confounding factors. As many as 44% of subjects had MetS, with elevated waist circumference as the most common component (77%). Higher salt taste sensitivity (lower threshold) was associated with several positive outcomes: lower odds of MetS (OR = 0.69; 95% CI 0.52–0.92), lower odds for elevated waist circumference (0.47; 0.27–0.82), elevated fasting glucose or diabetes (0.65; 0.45–0.94), and reduced HDL cholesterol (0.59; 0.42–0.84), compared to the higher threshold group. Subjects with lower salt taste threshold were more likely to consume more fruit, and less likely to adhere to olive oil and white meat guidelines, but without a difference in the overall Mediterranean diet compliance. Salt taste intensity perception was not associated with any of the investigated outcomes, while salty solution liking was associated with MetS (OR = 1.85, CI 95% 1.02–3.35). This study identified an association between salt taste perception and MetS and gave a new insight into taste perception, nutrition, and possible health outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health)
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13 pages, 1101 KiB  
Article
Salt Taste Genotype, Dietary Habits and Biomarkers of Health: No Associations in an Elderly Cohort
by Celeste Ferraris, Alexandria Turner, Kiranjit Kaur, Jessica Piper, Martin Veysey, Mark Lucock and Emma L. Beckett
Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 1056; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041056 - 10 Apr 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4905
Abstract
A small amount of emerging research has observed variations between individual sensitivity, preference and intake of salt in the presence of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) on the genes encoding salt taste receptors. Sodium intake is a significant risk factor for common diseases in [...] Read more.
A small amount of emerging research has observed variations between individual sensitivity, preference and intake of salt in the presence of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) on the genes encoding salt taste receptors. Sodium intake is a significant risk factor for common diseases in elderly populations such as hypertension and cardiovascular disease; however, this does not fully explain the risk. Research into the influence of salt taste genetics on diet quality is yet to be undertaken and current research on indicators of health is limited and mixed in the direction of associations. Therefore, a secondary analysis of data from a well-characterised elderly cohort (the cross-sectional Retirement Health and Lifestyle Study, n = 536) was conducted to explore relationships between the salt taste-related SNP TRPV1-rs8065080 (assessed by Taqman genotyping assay), dietary habits and biomarkers of health. Data were analysed with standard least squares regression modelling and Tukey’s HSD post hoc tests. No association was found between the TRPV1-rs8065080 genotype, sodium intake or multiple diet quality indices (assessed by food frequency questionnaire). Sodium-related markers of health including blood pressure and markers of kidney function (urinary creatinine and albumin/creatinine ratio) and general health markers, such as Body Mass Index (BMI), were also not related to TRPV1-rs8065080 genotype. To date, this study is the most comprehensive investigation conducted to determine if the TRPV1-rs8065080 genotype relates to sodium intake and health markers influenced by sodium intake. Although no significant relationships were found, these findings are an important contribution to the limited body of knowledge surround this SNP. In addition to further research across other ages and cultures, the TRPV1-rs8065080 genotype may interact with other ion channels, and so further studies are required to determine if polymorphic variations influence sodium intake, diet and health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health)
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22 pages, 8345 KiB  
Article
Sodium Imbalance in Mice Results Primarily in Compensatory Gene Regulatory Responses in Kidney and Colon, but Not in Taste Tissue
by Kristina Lossow, Wolfgang Meyerhof and Maik Behrens
Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12040995 - 3 Apr 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4300
Abstract
Renal excretion and sodium appetite provide the basis for sodium homeostasis. In both the kidney and tongue, the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is involved in sodium uptake and sensing. The diuretic drug amiloride is known to block ENaC, producing a mild natriuresis. However, [...] Read more.
Renal excretion and sodium appetite provide the basis for sodium homeostasis. In both the kidney and tongue, the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is involved in sodium uptake and sensing. The diuretic drug amiloride is known to block ENaC, producing a mild natriuresis. However, amiloride is further reported to induce salt appetite in rodents after prolonged exposure as well as bitter taste impressions in humans. To examine how dietary sodium content and amiloride impact on sodium appetite, mice were subjected to dietary salt and amiloride intervention and subsequently analyzed for ENaC expression and taste reactivity. We observed substantial changes of ENaC expression in the colon and kidney confirming the role of these tissues for sodium homeostasis, whereas effects on lingual ENaC expression and taste preferences were negligible. In comparison, prolonged exposure to amiloride-containing drinking water affected β- and αENaC expression in fungiform and posterior taste papillae, respectively, next to changes in salt taste. However, amiloride did not only change salt taste sensation but also perception of sucrose, glutamate, and citric acid, which might be explained by the fact that amiloride itself activates bitter taste receptors in mice. Accordingly, exposure to amiloride generally affects taste impression and should be evaluated with care. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health)
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12 pages, 1109 KiB  
Article
Effects of Doenjang, a Traditional Korean Soybean Paste, with High-Salt Diet on Blood Pressure in Sprague–Dawley Rats
by Eun-Gyung Mun, Jung Eun Park and Youn-Soo Cha
Nutrients 2019, 11(11), 2745; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112745 - 12 Nov 2019
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5518
Abstract
Fermented foods in Korea contain a lot of salt. Although salt is reported to exacerbate health trouble, fermented foods have beneficial effects. We hypothesized that doenjang could reduce blood pressure in Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats fed a high-salt diet. Eighteen SD rats were divided [...] Read more.
Fermented foods in Korea contain a lot of salt. Although salt is reported to exacerbate health trouble, fermented foods have beneficial effects. We hypothesized that doenjang could reduce blood pressure in Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats fed a high-salt diet. Eighteen SD rats were divided into three groups: normal-salt (NS) group, high-salt (HS) group, and high-salt with doenjang (HSD) group. The salinity of doenjang and saltwater was adjusted to 8% using Mohr’s method. Blood pressure was significantly reduced in the HSD group compared with the HS group. Water intake and urine excretion volume has significantly increased in the HS group compared with the HSD group. The excreted concentrations of urine sodium, urine potassium, and feces potassium significantly increased in the HSD group compared with the HS and NS groups. Renin level was significantly decreased in the HSD group compared to the other groups. These results indicate that eating traditional salty fermented food is not a direct cause of hypertension, and the intake of doenjang in normal healthy animals improved blood pressure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health)
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18 pages, 6534 KiB  
Article
Expression of Renin-Angiotensin System Components in the Taste Organ of Mice
by Noriatsu Shigemura, Shingo Takai, Fumie Hirose, Ryusuke Yoshida, Keisuke Sanematsu and Yuzo Ninomiya
Nutrients 2019, 11(9), 2251; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11092251 - 19 Sep 2019
Cited by 52 | Viewed by 7543
Abstract
The systemic renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is an important regulator of body fluid and sodium homeostasis. Angiotensin II (AngII) is a key active product of the RAS. We previously revealed that circulating AngII suppresses amiloride-sensitive salt taste responses and enhances the responses to sweet [...] Read more.
The systemic renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is an important regulator of body fluid and sodium homeostasis. Angiotensin II (AngII) is a key active product of the RAS. We previously revealed that circulating AngII suppresses amiloride-sensitive salt taste responses and enhances the responses to sweet compounds via the AngII type 1 receptor (AT1) expressed in taste cells. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the modulation of taste function by AngII remain uncharacterized. Here we examined the expression of three RAS components, namely renin, angiotensinogen, and angiotensin-converting enzyme-1 (ACE1), in mouse taste tissues. We found that all three RAS components were present in the taste buds of fungiform and circumvallate papillae and co-expressed with αENaC (epithelial sodium channel α-subunit, a salt taste receptor) or T1R3 (taste receptor type 1 member 3, a sweet taste receptor component). Water-deprived mice exhibited significantly increased levels of renin expression in taste cells (p < 0.05). These results indicate the existence of a local RAS in the taste organ and suggest that taste function may be regulated by both locally-produced and circulating AngII. Such integrated modulation of peripheral taste sensitivity by AngII may play an important role in sodium/calorie homeostasis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health)
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17 pages, 625 KiB  
Article
Exploring Associations between Interindividual Differences in Taste Perception, Oral Microbiota Composition, and Reported Food Intake
by Camilla Cattaneo, Patrizia Riso, Monica Laureati, Giorgio Gargari and Ella Pagliarini
Nutrients 2019, 11(5), 1167; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051167 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 8028
Abstract
The role of taste perception, its relationship with oral microbiota composition, and their putative link with eating habits and food intake were the focus of the present study. A sample of 59 reportedly healthy adults (27 male, 32 female; age: 23.3 ± 2.6 [...] Read more.
The role of taste perception, its relationship with oral microbiota composition, and their putative link with eating habits and food intake were the focus of the present study. A sample of 59 reportedly healthy adults (27 male, 32 female; age: 23.3 ± 2.6 years) were recruited for the study and taste thresholds for basic tastes, food intake, and oral microbiota composition were evaluated. Differences in taste perception were associated with different habitual food consumption (i.e., frequency) and actual intake. Subjects who were orally hyposensitive to salty taste reported consuming more bakery and salty baked products, saturated-fat-rich products, and soft drinks than hypersensitive subjects. Subjects hyposensitive to sweet taste reported consuming more frequently sweets and desserts than the hypersensitive group. Moreover, subjects hypersensitive to bitter taste showed higher total energy and carbohydrate intakes compared to those who perceived the solution as less bitter. Some bacterial taxa on tongue dorsum were associated with gustatory functions and with vegetable-rich (e.g., Prevotella) or protein/fat-rich diets (e.g., Clostridia). Future studies will be pivotal to confirm the hypothesis and the potential exploitation of oral microbiome as biomarker of long-term consumption of healthy or unhealthy diets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health)
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Review

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9 pages, 477 KiB  
Review
Does ENaC Work as Sodium Taste Receptor in Humans?
by Albertino Bigiani
Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 1195; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041195 - 24 Apr 2020
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 6657
Abstract
Taste reception is fundamental for the proper selection of food and beverages. Among the several chemicals recognized by the human taste system, sodium ions (Na+) are of particular relevance. Na+ represents the main extracellular cation and is a key factor [...] Read more.
Taste reception is fundamental for the proper selection of food and beverages. Among the several chemicals recognized by the human taste system, sodium ions (Na+) are of particular relevance. Na+ represents the main extracellular cation and is a key factor in many physiological processes. Na+ elicits a specific sensation, called salty taste, and low-medium concentrations of table salt (NaCl, the common sodium-containing chemical we use to season foods) are perceived as pleasant and appetitive. How we detect this cation in foodstuffs is scarcely understood. In animal models, such as the mouse and the rat, the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) has been proposed as a key protein for recognizing Na+ and for mediating preference responses to low-medium salt concentrations. Here, I will review our current understanding regarding the possible involvement of ENaC in the detection of food Na+ by the human taste system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salt Taste, Nutrition, and Health)
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