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Thermodynamics, Mechanism and Kinetics of Metallurgical Processes, 2nd Edition
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Thermodynamics, Mechanism and Kinetics of Metallurgical Processes, 2nd Edition

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 March 2026 | Viewed by 4968

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Álvaro Aracena Caipa

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Guest Editor
Escuela de Ingeniería Química, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Avenida Brasil 2162, Valparaiso 2362854, Chile
Interests: thermodynamics and kinetics of extractive metallurgy processes; kinetics of extraction/purification of metals from residues; concentration of elements of interest from dilute solutions
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Hyunjung Kim (Nick)

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Guest Editor
Department of Earth Resources and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
Interests: mineral processing and extractive metallurgy; sustainable process development; urban mining; colloid chemistry
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The analysis of factors affecting metallurgical processes, where extraction/concentration/precipitation of useful metal is involved, is of great relevance since product analysis intrinsically generates process optimization. To achieve these goals, each process must be evaluated through a series of experimental studies that involve the processing of empirical data which must agree with the theoretical work. The experimental results must be validated by analysis and interpretation of the solids, liquids, or gases generated by the experimental work; in parallel, those analyses must be supported by detailed and substantiated work using thermodynamic tools. The juxtaposition of experimental and theoretical evaluation produces chemical or thermochemical reaction mechanisms supporting relevant and innovative hypotheses in metallurgical processes. On the other hand, mass transfer mechanisms promote heterogeneous kinetic models, widely used to understand the true incidence of factors such as temperature, reagent/gas concentration, surface area, and porosity level, among others, on the reaction rate, leading to intrinsic impact of the real actors on the evolution of metallurgical treatment.

The critical evaluation of processes based on thermodynamics, heterogeneous kinetics, and reaction mechanisms will affect the basis of the metallurgical structure and backbone of any process, leading in the direction of optimization, economic performance, and specific requirement of each mineral/metal treatment of interest.

This Special Issue aims to bring together studies related to the bridges of this metallurgical backbone such as thermodynamics, reaction mechanisms/mass transfer, and heterogeneous kinetics, as a whole or separately, contributing and generating new ideas for the next generations of extractive metallurgists.

Dr. Álvaro Aracena Araccena Caipa
Prof. Dr. Hyunjung Kim
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • thermodynamics for high and low temperatures
  • heterogeneous kinetics
  • extractive metallurgical processes

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (6 papers)

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13 pages, 4393 KB  
Article
Recovery of Rare Earth Elements from Calciothermic Reduction Slag by Sulfation Roasting–Water Leaching Method
by Jinqiu Huang, Lizhi Zhang, Wen Yu, Jiangan Chen, Xinwei Li, Qizhi Li, Ting Liao and Xiaoning Mo
Minerals 2025, 15(10), 1025; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15101025 - 28 Sep 2025
Viewed by 583
Abstract
The calciothermic reduction slag (CRS) generated in heavy rare earth metal production, is rich in rare earth elements (REE) and highly amenable to recovery. In the present study, the CRS was treated with a H2SO4 roasting–water leaching method for the [...] Read more.
The calciothermic reduction slag (CRS) generated in heavy rare earth metal production, is rich in rare earth elements (REE) and highly amenable to recovery. In the present study, the CRS was treated with a H2SO4 roasting–water leaching method for the recovery of REEs. The feasibility of this process was confirmed by thermodynamic analysis. Key roasting and leaching factors governing the leaching efficiency of REE were identified and optimized. The maximum REE extraction efficiency reached 94.65% under the optimal conditions: roasting at 150 °C for 240 min with 15 mL of H2SO4, followed by water leaching at 20 °C for 60 min at a liquid–solid ratio of 15:1. Results of XRD, SEM, and EDS revealed that the REEs in the CRS were transformed into water-soluble rare earth sulfates after roasting. In the leaching process, the rare earth sulfate is efficiently extracted, whereas CaSO4 has low solubility in water. A CaSO4 product with a 98.10% purity was obtained with a calcium recovery of 90.79%, and the removal rate of fluorine in the CRS was 99.99%. The leaching kinetics of the REEs follow a diffusion plus interfacial transfer model with an apparent activation energy of –46.45 kJ·mol−1. This study demonstrates that sulfation roasting–water leaching is a viable route for the comprehensive utilization of CRS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermodynamics, Mechanism and Kinetics of Metallurgical Processes, 2nd Edition)
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24 pages, 4930 KB  
Article
Traces of Cadmium Modulate the Morphology of Silver Crystals Produced from the Controlled Cooling of a Primary Lead Melt
by Steven King, Alberto Striolo, Paul F. Wilson, Geoff West, Mark A. Williams and Michael Piller
Minerals 2025, 15(8), 853; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080853 - 12 Aug 2025
Viewed by 532
Abstract
This work probes the possibility of controlling the morphology of silver crystals through inoculation of trace-level metallic species, building on an industrial-scale cooling process. The obtained crystals are analyzed via X-ray tomography (XRT), dynamic picture analysis, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results [...] Read more.
This work probes the possibility of controlling the morphology of silver crystals through inoculation of trace-level metallic species, building on an industrial-scale cooling process. The obtained crystals are analyzed via X-ray tomography (XRT), dynamic picture analysis, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results reveal assemblages composed of octahedral crystals and triangular platelets. X-ray tomography yields pore size distributions that correlate with Ag% composition. Out of several trace metals tested, cadmium was found to yield a greater number of octahedral morphologies with pronounced twinning, contributing to a fibrous structure. This behavior is consistent with the energetic preference of cadmium atoms to integrate on Ag (111) planes and the limitation of twinning to the (111) planes in FCC metals. Faceting of the interiors of the triangular facets of octahedral crystals is noted in all SEM images of acid-washed samples. These physical features are interpreted as a product of crystal growth and not selective acid etching. The generation of octahedral silver crystals from a molten melt and the presence of faceting are research firsts, such crystal morphologies being previously generated only from aqueous chemical reduction systems. Adding traces of cadmium to primary lead melts is promising for producing silver nanocrystals with desired morphologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermodynamics, Mechanism and Kinetics of Metallurgical Processes, 2nd Edition)
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16 pages, 3515 KB  
Article
Kinetics and Mechanism of Copper Elution from Protonated Dry Alginate Beads: Process Optimization and Stability Assessment
by Alvaro Aracena, Paz Fuenzalida, César Álvarez and Oscar Jerez
Minerals 2025, 15(5), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050465 - 30 Apr 2025
Viewed by 653
Abstract
Numerous studies have been conducted on the removal of heavy and toxic metals using protonated dry alginate beads (PDABs) as a cation exchanger. However, there is a scarcity of research on the kinetics of copper elution with biosorbents, despite the necessity of restoring [...] Read more.
Numerous studies have been conducted on the removal of heavy and toxic metals using protonated dry alginate beads (PDABs) as a cation exchanger. However, there is a scarcity of research on the kinetics of copper elution with biosorbents, despite the necessity of restoring them to their original state with undiminished biosorption capacity for reuse. This study analyzes the parameters that directly affect the elution rate of copper ions from PDABs. The parameters examined include temperature (5–80 °C), sulfuric acid concentration (0.0005–0.0153 M), stirring speed (0–500 rev min−1), and different acids (HNO3, HCl, and HClO4). Additionally, the stability of alginate was assessed over multiple cycles. The results indicate that the elution mechanism is governed by ion exchange between copper ions and protons. The copper elution rate was significantly influenced by temperature and H2SO4 concentration, achieving an elution efficiency of 98.6% at 80 °C and an H2SO4 concentration of 0.0056 M. The kinetics of copper ion elution were adequately described by the Lagergren pseudo-first-order model. The dependence of copper elution on sulfuric acid concentration was found to be of the order of 0.4. Furthermore, intrinsic rate constants were determined, and an activation energy of 9.2 kJ mol−1 was obtained within the studied temperature range. These findings indicate that copper elution is a chemically controlled process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermodynamics, Mechanism and Kinetics of Metallurgical Processes, 2nd Edition)
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11 pages, 5232 KB  
Article
Mechanism Research for the Influence of TiO2 Content on the Shape Transformation of Rutile Crystals
by Jiqing Han, Li Zhang, Hongmei Yin, Qiuping Feng and Hongsheng Zhang
Minerals 2025, 15(5), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050449 - 26 Apr 2025
Viewed by 392
Abstract
The isothermal precipitation kinetics of rutile crystals was studied to clarify the mechanism for the influence of TiO2 content on the shape transformation of rutile crystals. The results indicate that the growth index n values were about 2, 3, and 4 when [...] Read more.
The isothermal precipitation kinetics of rutile crystals was studied to clarify the mechanism for the influence of TiO2 content on the shape transformation of rutile crystals. The results indicate that the growth index n values were about 2, 3, and 4 when the TiO2 contents of the raw materials were 27, 37, and 47%, indicating that the precipitation of the rutile crystal had a one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional growth. Thus, the shapes of the rutile crystals were a cuboid, a cube, and a sphere when the TiO2 contents of the raw materials were 27, 37, and 47%. An increase in the TiO2 content of raw materials can encourage the transformation of rutile crystals into spheres, which is beneficial to the settling of rutile crystals in molten slag. It realizes the conversion of rutile from a lean ore to a rich ore and avoids subsequent beneficiation processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermodynamics, Mechanism and Kinetics of Metallurgical Processes, 2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 6466 KB  
Article
Experimental Simulation Studies on Non-Uniform Fluidization Characteristics of Two-Component Particles in a Bubbling Fluidized Bed
by Mingmei Zhu, Zhong Zheng, Weiping Hao, Zhengjiang Yang and Zhancheng Guo
Minerals 2024, 14(11), 1113; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111113 - 31 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1322
Abstract
Taking the fluidized pre-reduction process of iron ore powder bubbling fluidized bed as the background, for the problem of non-uniform structure in the bed of gas-solid fluidization process, the non-uniform fluidization characteristics of bicomponent particles are investigated in a cold two-dimensional bubbling fluidized [...] Read more.
Taking the fluidized pre-reduction process of iron ore powder bubbling fluidized bed as the background, for the problem of non-uniform structure in the bed of gas-solid fluidization process, the non-uniform fluidization characteristics of bicomponent particles are investigated in a cold two-dimensional bubbling fluidized bed by using a combination of physical experiments and mathematical simulations. Fluidization experiments were carried out under typical working conditions by using glass beads to study the effects of apparent gas velocity, mass ratio, and other factors on the non-uniform structure in the bed. Through the experimental observation of the bubble behavior, the effect of the cyclic change in bubble formation, rise and growth to rupture on the bed uniformity were analyzed. The experiments showed that the fluidized bed of two-component particles would be stratified, and the non-uniformity was strong in the upper part and weak in the lower part, and the apparent gas velocity and particle size were the main influencing factors. Based on the Euler-Lagrange reference frame modeling, the fluidization process of the two-dimensional bubble bed was simulated by the CFD-DEM method. The simulations of typical experimental conditions were carried out to further analyze the velocity distribution and the volume ratio of each phase in the bed from the gas-solid interaction level, revealing that the velocity distribution in the upper part of the bed is not uniform, and the gas flow is strongly perturbed, with intense bubble aggregation. The results reveal the reasons for the non-uniform phenomenon of gas-solid fluidization, which can provide a theoretical basis for the regulation of the non-uniform structure of the fluidization process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermodynamics, Mechanism and Kinetics of Metallurgical Processes, 2nd Edition)
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28 pages, 2561 KB  
Systematic Review
Electrodeposition of Metallic Magnesium in Ionic Liquids: A Systematic Review
by Agustín Arancibia-Zúñiga and Carlos Carlesi
Minerals 2025, 15(10), 1021; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15101021 - 26 Sep 2025
Viewed by 564
Abstract
Metallic magnesium is a strategic material with applications in mobility, energy and medicine, due to its low density, biocompatibility and use as an anode in rechargeable batteries. However, industrial production methods—such as the thermal reduction of dolomite or the electrolysis of anhydrous MgCl [...] Read more.
Metallic magnesium is a strategic material with applications in mobility, energy and medicine, due to its low density, biocompatibility and use as an anode in rechargeable batteries. However, industrial production methods—such as the thermal reduction of dolomite or the electrolysis of anhydrous MgCl2—face environmental and operational challenges, including high temperatures, emissions, and dehydration of precursors like bischofite. In response, ionic liquids (ILs) have emerged as alternative electrolytes, offering low volatility, thermal stability and wide electrochemical windows that enable electrodeposition in water-free media. This study presents a systematic review of 32 peer-reviewed articles, applying the PRISMA 2020 methodology. The analysis is structured across three dimensions: (1) types of ILs employed, (2) operational parameters and (3) magnesium source materials. In addition to electrolyte composition, key factors such as temperature, viscosity control, precursor purity and cell architecture were identified as critical for achieving efficient and reproducible magnesium deposition. Furthermore, the use of elevated temperatures and co-solvent strategies has been shown to effectively mitigate viscosity-related transport limitations, enabling more uniform ion mobility and enhancing interfacial behavior. The use of alloy co-deposition strategies and multicomponent electrolyte systems also expands the technological potential of IL-based processes, especially for corrosion-resistant coatings or composite electrode materials. This review contributes by critically synthesizing current techniques, identifying knowledge gaps and proposing strategies for scalable, sustainable magnesium production. The findings position IL-based electrodeposition as a potential alternative for environmentally responsible metal recovery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermodynamics, Mechanism and Kinetics of Metallurgical Processes, 2nd Edition)
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