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Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights, Risk Factors, and Drug Therapies

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A special issue of Medicina (ISSN 1648-9144). This special issue belongs to the section "Cardiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 January 2026) | Viewed by 17247

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Christina Chrysohoou

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Guest Editor

First Department of Cardiology, Hippokration General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Medical School, 114 Vasilissis Sofias Avenue, 11527 Athens, Greece
Interests: heart failure; advanced heart failure; cardiopulmonary exercise test; rehabilitation; cardiametabolic medicine; cardiovascular imaging
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Panagiotis Theofilis

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1st Cardiology Clinic, Hippokration General Hospital of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
Interests: atherosclerosis; diabetes; angiogenesis; microRNA; endothelium

Dr. Emmanouil Mantzouranis

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Guest Editor Assistant

First University Department of Cardiology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
Interests: interventional cardiology; cardioneurology; acute cardiac care; MINOCA; pulmonary embolism; heart failure

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Although the strong association between diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) has been well established and extensively studied over recent decades, emerging pathophysiological mechanisms and novel biomarkers and risk factors continue to shed new light on these links. These advancements are enhancing the development of innovative diagnostic tools and targeted therapies. In the era of big data and artificial intelligence, evidence-based medicine is evolving into precision medicine, offering more effective and individualized approaches with improved safety profiles. Given that CVD remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, the timely integration of precision medicine into cardiovascular care is imperative. This Special Issue will highlight recent breakthroughs in our understanding of these interconnected conditions and explore cutting-edge innovations in diagnostics and therapeutic strategies.

We welcome original research articles, review articles, and systematic reviews or meta-analyses that address the following topics:

Novel insights into the pathophysiological mechanisms linking diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease;
Emerging risk factors and biomarkers influencing diagnostic strategies, disease progression, and clinical outcomes;
Recent advances in pharmacological and non-pharmacological innovative treatments;
The role of precision medicine and artificial intelligence in diagnostic procedures and therapeutic decisions.

We encourage submissions from researchers across diverse scientific fields, including cardiovascular medicine, interventional cardiology, endocrinology, nephrology, and internal medicine.

We look forward to receiving your valuable contributions. Please feel free to reach out if you have any questions.

Dr. Christina Chrysohoou
Dr. Panagiotis Theofilis
Guest Editors

Dr. Emmanouil Mantzouranis
Guest Editor Assistant

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Medicina is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

diabetes
hypertension
cardiovascular disease
cardiovascular risk factors
novel drug therapies
novel therapies
coronary artery disease
heart failure
precision medicine
artificial intelligence

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 949 KB

Open AccessArticle

Determinants of In-Stent Restenosis in ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction: Insights from a Single-Center Retrospective Analysis

by Alice Elena Munteanu, Alexandru Andrei Badea, Silviu Marcel Stanciu, Alexandru Mihai Popescu, Florentina Cristina Pleșa and Ciprian Constantin

Medicina 2026, 62(4), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina62040785 - 19 Apr 2026

Viewed by 482

Abstract

Background and Objectives: Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) has markedly improved outcomes in coronary artery disease through the implantation of bare-metal stents (BMS) or drug-eluting stents (DES). However, in-stent restenosis (ISR) remains a significant complication, often necessitating repeat interventions. This study aimed to identify risk factors associated with ISR in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) who underwent PCI. Materials and Methods: We conducted a retrospective, non-randomized observational study of 107 STEMI patients treated with PCI between January 2016 and December 2019 who subsequently underwent clinically indicated (predominantly symptom-driven) follow-up coronary angiography within 12 months. ISR was defined as ≥50% luminal narrowing at follow-up angiography. Time-to-event analysis was performed using Cox regression models, incorporating clinical, biochemical, and angiographic variables. Results: In this selected cohort of patients undergoing follow-up angiography, ISR of any degree was identified in 87% of patients, and 52% had restenosis >70%. Advanced age, prior cardiovascular events, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and history of stroke significantly increased the hazard of ISR. Smoking, dyslipidemia, and hypertension were prevalent in patients with severe ISR. Women presented with more severe clinical profiles (higher Killip class and troponin levels). DES showed slightly better TIMI flow than BMS, but stent type, dimensions, and number did not significantly impact restenosis risk. Thrombolytic therapy was associated with a significantly reduced ISR hazard. Mortality was 6% in patients with severe ISR. The highest restenosis incidence occurred in the LAD and RCA territories. Conclusions: ISR is a multifactorial process influenced by demographic, clinical, and procedural factors. Despite technological advances, ISR remains a prevalent issue, particularly in high-risk groups undergoing clinically indicated follow-up angiography. Secondary prevention strategies, optimized stent deployment, and targeted therapies addressing inflammation and vascular remodeling are essential to improving long-term PCI outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights, Risk Factors, and Drug Therapies)

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18 pages, 1109 KB

Open AccessArticle

Renal Safety of Distal Renal Denervation on Kidney Function in Diabetic Patients with Resistant Hypertension

by Musheg Manukyan, Victor Mordovin, Stanislav Pekarskiy, Irina Zyubanova, Valeria Lichikaki, Ekaterina Solonskaya, Simzhit Khunkhinova, Anna Gusakova and Alla Falkovskaya

Medicina 2026, 62(2), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina62020274 - 28 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Background and Objectives: The combination of resistant hypertension (RHTN) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) accelerates the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD), which may be largely associated with sympathetic hyperactivity. Distal renal denervation (dRDN) effectively reduces sympathetic flow to the kidneys, causing renal vasodilation and increased renal perfusion. However, this effect may be limited by nephrotoxicity due to the multiple increase in the number of contrast injections, as well as a significant blood pressure (BP) reduction, which naturally worsens renal perfusion. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that dRDN prevents the progressive decline in kidney function in patients with RHTN and T2DM. Materials and Methods: The prospective interventional study (REFRAIN, NCT04948918) included men and women > 20 y.o. with true RHTN. Eligible patients underwent dRDN. The primary endpoint was a change in eGFR from baseline to 12 months. Secondary endpoints were changes in 24 h BP, serum lipocalin-2, cystatin C, 24 h urinary albumin excretion, renal blood flow, and kidney volumes (by MRI). Multiple regression analysis was used to find independent predictors of individual estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) change. Results: A total of 29 patients with RHTN and T2DM were included in the study (61.6 ± 7.2 y.o., 10 males, mean 24 h ambulatory BP: 158.1 ± 21.4/81.8 ± 12.4 mmHg (systolic/diastolic, respectively)), HbA1c: 7.8 ± 1.4%, and eGFR 56.7 ± 19.9 mL/min/1.73 m², 23 (79%) patients with CKD, and 2 patients with albuminuria only. There were no perioperative complications. Twenty-seven (93%) participants completed 12 month follow-up. eGFR did not change from baseline: +1.3 mL/min/1.73 m² [95% CI: −9.6, 12.1], despite the expected decrease due to a significant decrease in 24 h systolic BP (−18.2 mmHg [95% CI: −28.6, −7.8]). No changes in other secondary endpoints were observed. Independent predictors of individual eGFR change were baseline 24 h pulse pressure (p = 0.030) and HbA1c (p = 0.010). Conclusions: Distal RDN demonstrates a substantial nephroprotective effect in patients with RHTN and T2DM, which may be partly mediated by a reduction in arterial stiffness and is negatively dependent on baseline hyperglycemia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights, Risk Factors, and Drug Therapies)

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13 pages, 985 KB

Open AccessArticle

Early SGLT2 Inhibitor Therapy in Acute Coronary Syndrome: Mitigating Adverse Remodeling in High-Risk Phenotypes—A Real-World Study

by Teodora Mateoc, Ioana-Maria Suciu, Dan Gaiță, Andor Minodora, Roxana Popescu, Tania Vlad, Corina Flangea, Călin Muntean and Daliborca-Cristina Vlad

Medicina 2026, 62(1), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina62010205 - 19 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1102

Abstract

Background and Objectives: SGLT2 inhibitors are foundational in heart failure therapy, yet their impact on left ventricular (LV) remodeling immediately following acute coronary syndrome (ACS) remains less defined. This study evaluated the association between early SGLT2 inhibitor initiation and structural recovery in a real-world post-ACS cohort. Materials and Methods: We conducted a retrospective observational study including 238 revascularized ACS patients, stratified into an SGLT2 inhibitor group (n = 71) and a control group (n = 167). Changes in LV ejection fraction (LVEF) and indexed LV mass (LVMi) were assessed by echocardiography at baseline and follow-up (mean 286 days). Multivariable regression models were adjusted for baseline imbalances and tested for interactions with diabetes status. Results: A significant “confounding by indication” was observed; the SGLT2 group presented a high-risk phenotype with higher diabetes prevalence (56.3% vs. 25.7%, p < 0.001), lower baseline LVEF (38.3% vs. 43.3%), and greater hypertrophy. After adjustment, statistical independence was attenuated by baseline severity, yet the SGLT2 group achieved follow-up structural outcomes comparable to lower-risk controls. Interaction analysis indicated these trends were consistent regardless of diabetes status (p > 0.05). Conclusions: In this high-risk ACS population, early SGLT2 inhibitor therapy was associated with stabilization of cardiac structure. Despite a profound baseline disadvantage, the recovery trajectory effectively aligned with that of a lower-risk population, highlighting a clinically relevant pattern of structural stabilization consistent across metabolic subgroups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights, Risk Factors, and Drug Therapies)

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11 pages, 511 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Status of Metabolic Control in Patients with Diabetes Attending Primary Care Clinics in Madinah, Saudi Arabia

by Eman Alfadhli, Amal M. Qasem Surrati, Ruqaya Saleh Masoud, Yaseera Ali Gadi, Walaa A. Alahmadi and Mohammed Khalid Turkistani

Medicina 2025, 61(10), 1856; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61101856 - 16 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1354

Abstract

Background and Objectives: The comprehensive control of diabetes and its related comorbidities is essential to avoid diabetes complications and reduce diabetes care expenses. Nevertheless, several reports have uncovered a gap in diabetes management and confirmed suboptimal glycemic control globally. This study aims to assess metabolic control among patients with diabetes attending primary care clinics (PCCs) in Madinah, Saudi Arabia. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional descriptive study took place in Madinah city, Saudi Arabia, in 15 primary care centers. A consecutive series of 692 adult diabetic patients who attended the clinics in one year were included. The primary outcome measures were achieving blood glucose, blood pressure, and lipids goals. The achievement of adequate metabolic control followed the American diabetes association (ADA) guidelines. Results: The majority (98%) of the patients had type 2 diabetes (T2DM) with a mean age of 55.1 ± 11.6 years and a mean diabetes duration of 11.02 ± 7.8 years. The mean HbA1c was 8.39 ± 1.7, and glycemic goals (HbA1C < 7%) were achieved in 15.7%. The achievement of LDL, triglyceride, and HDL goals were as follows; 46.4%. 53.3%, and 70.8%, respectively. In total 66.3% of subjects achieved systolic blood pressure goals, and 88.7% achieved diastolic blood pressure goals. Younger age, longer diabetes duration, and higher LDL levels were associated with poor glycemic control. Conclusions: Glycemic control is inadequate among patients with diabetes at PCCs in Madinah, Saudi Arabia. A patient-centered approach and individualized management plan considering all risk factors are required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights, Risk Factors, and Drug Therapies)

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Review

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16 pages, 543 KB

Open AccessReview

Pleiotropic Effects of Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy on Cardiometabolic Modulation in Heart Failure

by Panagiotis Theofilis, Panagiotis Iliakis, Aikaterini-Eleftheria Karanikola, Michail Botis, Kyriaki Mavromoustakou, Panagiotis Xydis, Nikolaos Ktenopoulos, Paschalis Karakasis, Ioannis Leontsinis, Christina Chrysohoou and Konstantinos Tsioufis

Medicina 2026, 62(3), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina62030465 - 28 Feb 2026

Viewed by 651

Abstract

Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) is a cornerstone intervention for patients with heart failure (HF) and electrical dyssynchrony, improving quality of life, functional capacity, and survival. Beyond mechanical synchrony, mounting evidence suggests CRT exerts systemic and myocardial cardiometabolic benefits. CRT acutely enhances mechanical efficiency and shifts substrate utilization toward greater oxidation of fatty acids and ketones, effects that correlate with long-term reverse remodeling on cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Earlier metabolomic profiling demonstrated that CRT normalizes circulating energy metabolites, improving Krebs cycle intermediates and substrate balance between glucose and lipids, while baseline metabolite patterns may differentiate responders from non-responders. These metabolic adaptations accompany favorable changes in diastolic performance, right ventricular function, and ventriculo-arterial coupling. In parallel, improved splanchnic perfusion and reduced congestion may ameliorate gut dysbiosis and endotoxemia, mitigating systemic inflammation. Collectively, these findings position CRT as a therapy capable of both mechanical and metabolic restoration in advanced HF. In this review, we discuss the emerging data on how CRT reconditions myocardial energy metabolism, influences ventricular–arterial interactions, and modulates peripheral and gut-derived metabolic pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights, Risk Factors, and Drug Therapies)

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35 pages, 1089 KB

Open AccessReview

SGLT2 Inhibitors in the Management of Cardio-Renal-Metabolic Syndrome: A New Therapeutic Era

by Konstantinos Grigoriou, Paschalis Karakasis, Athina Nasoufidou, Panagiotis Stachteas, Aleksandra Klisic, Efstratios Karagiannidis, Barbara Fyntanidou, Djordje S. Popovic, Dimitrios Patoulias, Antonios P. Antoniadis and Nikolaos Fragakis

Medicina 2025, 61(11), 1903; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61111903 - 23 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4845

Abstract

Cardiovascular (CV) disease, chronic kidney disease, obesity, and diabetes mellitus have reached epidemic proportions over the past few decades. Accumulating evidence highlights the strong interconnection between these conditions, leading to the definition of a broader disease entity known as cardio-renal-metabolic (CRM) syndrome. This newly recognized clinical entity presents important challenges in identifying the optimal treatment strategy within a holistic, patient-centered framework. In line with this, sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2is), owing to their multifaceted pharmacological effects, have been suggested as possible treatment options in the management of CRM. SGLT2is exert their antihyperglycemic effects by impeding the renal reabsorption of sodium and glucose, causing glycosuria and natriuresis. Research has confirmed that their unique beneficial effects extend beyond glycemic control, reducing CV death and hospitalizations in patients with heart failure, and the incidence of kidney failure in dedicated kidney outcome studies—regardless of diabetes status. Furthermore, these agents contribute to weight loss and blood pressure reduction. Their benefits appear to stem from a combination of factors, which include reduced oxidative stress, lower levels of inflammation, regulated neurohormonal activation, improved endothelial function, and enhanced metabolic efficiency. This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the effects of SGLT2is in CRM syndrome, synthesize evidence from landmark clinical trials, evaluate current experimental and diagnostic approaches, and provide the emerging role of SGLT2is in the treatment of this new clinical entity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights, Risk Factors, and Drug Therapies)

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14 pages, 962 KB

Open AccessReview

Artificial Intelligence and Advanced Digital Health for Hypertension: Evolving Tools for Precision Cardiovascular Care

by Ioannis Skalidis, Niccolo Maurizi, Adil Salihu, Stephane Fournier, Stephane Cook, Juan F. Iglesias, Pietro Laforgia, Livio D’Angelo, Philippe Garot, Thomas Hovasse, Antoinette Neylon, Thierry Unterseeh, Stephane Champagne, Nicolas Amabile, Neila Sayah, Francesca Sanguineti, Mariama Akodad, Henri Lu and Panagiotis Antiochos

Medicina 2025, 61(9), 1597; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61091597 - 4 Sep 2025

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5235

Abstract

Background: Hypertension remains the leading global risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, with suboptimal control rates despite guideline-directed therapies. Digital health and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies offer novel approaches for improving diagnosis, monitoring, and individualized treatment of hypertension. Objectives: To critically review the current landscape of AI-enabled digital tools for hypertension management, including emerging applications, implementation challenges, and future directions. Methods: A narrative review of recent PubMed-indexed studies (2019–2024) was conducted, focusing on clinical applications of AI and digital health technologies in hypertension. Emphasis was placed on real-world deployment, algorithmic explainability, digital biomarkers, and ethical/regulatory frameworks. Priority was given to high-quality randomized trials, systematic reviews, and expert consensus statements. Results: AI-supported platforms—including remote blood pressure monitoring, machine learning titration algorithms, and digital twins—have demonstrated early promise in improving hypertension control. Explainable AI (XAI) is critical for clinician trust and integration into decision-making. Equity-focused design and regulatory oversight are essential to prevent exacerbation of health disparities. Emerging implementation strategies, such as federated learning and co-design frameworks, may enhance scalability and generalizability across diverse care settings. Conclusions: AI-guided titration and digital twin approaches appear most promising for reducing therapeutic inertia, whereas cuffless blood pressure monitoring remains the least mature. Future work should prioritize pragmatic trials with equity and cost-effectiveness endpoints, supported by safeguards against bias, accountability gaps, and privacy risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights, Risk Factors, and Drug Therapies)

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16 pages, 1090 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Association of the Triglyceride–Glucose Index with Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events in Patients with Acute Coronary Syndromes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Eleni Bampali, Sotirios Chiotis, Aikaterini Zgouridou, Leonidas Koliastasis, Dimitrios Vrachatis, Dimitrios-Orestis Pavlou, Vaios Schismenos, Nikolaos Chaitidis, Antonios Antoniadis, Efstathios Pagourelias, Ioannis Doundoulakis, Vassileios P. Vassilikos and Georgios Giannopoulos

Medicina 2026, 62(2), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina62020360 - 11 Feb 2026

Viewed by 986

Abstract

Background and Objectives: The triglyceride–glucose (TyG) index is an accessible surrogate marker of insulin resistance and has been increasingly investigated for its prognostic relevance in cardiovascular disease. However, evidence regarding its predictive value for major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) in patients with acute coronary syndromes (ACSs) remains inconsistent. This study systematically assessed the association between TyG index and the risk of MACEs in individuals with ACS. Materials and Methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and ClinicalTrials.gov were searched through October 2025. Ten observational cohort studies including 32,751 ACS patients were analyzed. Studies reporting fully adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) for the association between TyG index and MACEs were eligible. A random-effects model was used to pool effect sizes expressed as adjusted HRs per 1-unit increase in the TyG index. Heterogeneity, sensitivity analyses, publication bias assessment, and meta-regression were conducted. Results: Higher TyG index values were significantly associated with increased MACE risk (pooled adjusted HR 1.45, 95% CI 1.25–1.68, I² = 80%). Leave-one-out analysis confirmed robustness. Meta-regression analysis suggested a stronger association in cohorts consisting exclusively of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, with a trend toward larger effect estimates in smaller studies, potentially contributing to the observed heterogeneity. Despite small-study effects, trim-and-fill-adjusted estimates remained significant (HR 1.26, 95% CI 1.05–1.52). Conclusions: An elevated TyG index is independently associated with higher MACE risk in ACS patients and may be considered as an additive metabolic risk marker in combination with established risk stratification tools, pending further prospective validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights, Risk Factors, and Drug Therapies)

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26 pages, 1576 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Growth Differentiation Factor 15 as a Link Between Obesity, Subclinical Atherosclerosis, and Heart Failure: A Systematic Review

by Raluca-Elena Alexa, Alexandr Ceasovschih, Bianca Codrina Morărașu, Andreea Asaftei, Mihai Constantin, Alexandra-Diana Diaconu, Anastasia Balta, Raluca Ecaterina Haliga, Victorița Șorodoc and Laurențiu Șorodoc

Medicina 2026, 62(1), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina62010132 - 8 Jan 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 932

Abstract

Background and Objectives: Obesity, heart failure (HF), and atherosclerosis have common pathways, including chronic inflammation, immune cells activation, and metabolic disturbances. These pathways often coexist and overlap, increasing cardiometabolic risk. Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) is an emerging cytokine linked to inflammation, oxidative stress, and metabolic dysregulation, which are common pathways between heart failure, obesity and atherosclerosis. Beyond its established prognostic value in cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and HF, recent evidence suggests that GDF-15 may also reflect subclinical atherosclerosis, potentially improving early risk stratification in obese and HF populations. The aim of this review is to synthesize current evidence on the association between GDF-15 and markers of subclinical atherosclerosis, and to evaluate whether GDF-15 may serve as an integrative biomarker reflecting shared cardiometabolic pathways. Materials and Methods: We conducted a systematic review following PRISMA recommendations registered by CRD420251267457 number on PROSPERO. PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched for human studies evaluating the correlation between markers of subclinical atherosclerosis and GDF-15 concentration. We excluded the studies not published in English, not involving human participants, and not meeting the inclusion criteria. We assessed the risk of bias using the Joanna Briggs Institute appraisal tool. Due to the heterogeneity of studies, a narrative synthesis was performed. Result: The review included 18 studies, which evaluated the association between GDF-15 and subclinical atherosclerosis markers, such as intima media thickness, coronary artery calcium score, ankle-brachial index, and atherosclerotic plaques. Studies included patients with metabolic disorders, chronic inflammatory diseases, HIV cohorts, and general population samples. Most of the studies reported that GDF-15 levels were associated with greater atherosclerotic burden; however, results were frequently influenced by confounders. Methodological limitations, such as limited or highly specified samples, cross-sectional designs, variability in atherosclerotic-imaging technique, and inconsistent adjustment for confounders, restrict generalization of the results. Conclusions: Current evidence supports GDF-15 as a biomarker integrating inflammatory and metabolic stress signals, indirectly linking obesity, HF and subclinical atherosclerosis. While current data supports its prognostic relevance, further studies are needed to confirm its clinical utility in routine assessment and preventive cardiovascular care. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights, Risk Factors, and Drug Therapies)

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