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3D Printing Technology Using Metal Materials and Its Applications

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 10 March 2027 | Viewed by 3933

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Prof. Dr. Piotr Kurylo

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Engineering and Technical Sciences, University of Zielona Gora, 65-417 Zielona Góra, Poland
Interests: 3D printing; construction materials; surface layer; production technology; accuracy of details; titanium; medical materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Radovan Hudák

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Additive Technologies in Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Measurement, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Kosice, Košice, Slovakia
Interests: biomedical engineering; biomaterials; scaffold; bioinspired engineering and biomimetic design; biomaterial science; additive technologies in medicine
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The development of 3D-printing technology brings with it the possibility for the rapid prototyping of intricate constructions and for creating constructions that were previously considered impossible to produce using other technologies. Three-dimensional printing technology enables the production of details in pieces or small-lot production with high accuracy instead of a production line. In 3D-printing technology, it is possible to use only a printer and material in the form of metal powder.

Three-dimensional-printing technology allows us to manufacture almost any element with the possibility of printing a prototype of a new construction in a short timeframe, within the limitations of the printing technology, and to optimize construction in terms of mass reduction while maintaining the strength of the printed products, which is a trait required by constructors.

Software supporting computer-aided design (CAD) combined with the possibilities of 3D printing allow for the optimization of filling details as well as for optimizing their mass while maintaining their mechanical strength. For example, Selective Laser Melting (SLM) allows us to produce precise and homogenous elements from metal powders. During SLM, printing metal parts are created based on computer spatial data from CAD applications in a layered, incremental manufacturing process. Generally, there are no limits to the design, and 3D printing ensures high speed and accuracy.

This Special Issue is an invitation to submit original articles on the following topics:

Printing parameters.
Accuracy of the shapes and dimensions of printed products.
Applications of 3D printing in medicine/industry.
3D printing in scientific research.
Hazards in 3D printing.
Heat treatment after 3D printing.
Design for 3D printing; DfAM (Design for Additive Manufacturing).
Low-emission 3D-printing technology.
Prototyping using 3D printing.
Optimization of mass and mechanical strength.
Tribological research.
Economics of using 3D-printing technology.
Metal powders and their properties.
Postprocessing.
Design and optimization of cellular and frame structures printed in 3D-printing technology.
Data formats for 3D printing.
Surface layer in products printed in 3D-printing technology.
Threats in 3D-printing technology.
Potential threats of using 3D printing in re-engineering used in 3D-printing technology in terrestrial and space conditions.
Simulations and analyses of 3D-printing processes in metal.
Numerical and analytical analyses in the metal 3D-printing process.

Prof. Dr. Piotr Kurylo
Prof. Dr. Radovan Hudák
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

3D printing
construction materials
prototyping for 3D printing
printing technology
powder metallic materials
printing parameters
properties of printing materials
mechanical, technological, and chemical properties of printed details
standardization in 3D printing
hazards of 3D metal printing
additive manufacturing
in-orbit additive manufacturing
additive manufacturing challenges in space
space industry
factory in space
gravity and microgravity
in situ material utilization

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 18766 KB

Open AccessArticle

Wear Behavior of Austenitic Stainless Steel 308L Fabricated by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

by Saleh Alzughaibi, Youssef Alammari, Abdulrahman Alrumayh, Mohammed T. Alamoudi, Faisal J. Alzahrani, Hussam H. Noor and Khalid Alqosaibi

Materials 2026, 19(11), 2207; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19112207 (registering DOI) - 24 May 2026

Abstract

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has emerged as a cost-effective and high-deposition-rate technique for fabricating large-scale metallic components; however, the complex thermal history inherent to the process leads to heterogeneous microstructures that can significantly influence tribological performance. In this study, the dry sliding wear behavior of WAAM-fabricated austenitic stainless steel 308L (SS308L) was systematically investigated using a pin-on-disk configuration. The influence of applied normal load (1.5–15 N) and sliding speed (0.03–0.229 m/s) on wear volume, specific wear rate, coefficient of friction (COF), and tangential force was evaluated. Optical microstructural observations indicated features consistent with a ferritic–austenitic solidification structure, including regions resembling polygonal ferrite, Widmanstätten ferrite, and austenitic dendritic morphologies. Wear results showed that wear volume and cross-sectional area increased monotonically with increasing load, while the effect of sliding speed was comparatively less significant. The specific wear rate remained on the order of 10⁻⁴ mm³/N·m with minor variations across test conditions. The COF decreased with increasing load up to 10 N, followed by a speed-dependent response at higher loads. The findings demonstrate that load is the dominant factor governing wear behavior in WAAM SS308L, while microstructural heterogeneity may contribute to frictional stability and wear resistance. This study provides valuable insight into the structure–tribology relationship of WAAM stainless steels and supports the optimization of process parameters for wear-critical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology Using Metal Materials and Its Applications)

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21 pages, 68169 KB

Open AccessArticle

Powder Spreading Dynamics and Process Optimization at a Heterogeneous Interface for Z-Direction Multi-Material Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Zhaowei Xiang, Shuai Ma, Fulin Han and Ju Wang

Materials 2026, 19(9), 1762; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19091762 - 26 Apr 2026

Viewed by 324

Abstract

This paper investigates the powder spreading process in a Z-direction multi-material fabrication system utilizing a blade. Focusing on 316L stainless steel and CuCrZr, a discrete element model was developed to simulate powder spreading at the heterogeneous material interface. The effects of spreading speed and theoretical layer thickness on the resulting powder bed quality were systematically examined. The results reveal that during spreading over a heterogeneous bed, the underlying powder exhibits an unsteady “forward-surging and rearward-suppressing” motion pattern, with inter-particle force chains displaying significant spatiotemporal fluctuations. Increasing the spreading speed exacerbates the disturbance and removal of the underlying powder, leading to a reduction in the deposited mass of CuCrZr and a deterioration in its distribution uniformity. Conversely, increasing the layer thickness effectively mitigates the mechanical disturbance of the underlying powder by the blade, significantly enhancing both the deposited mass of CuCrZr and its distribution uniformity. Further investigation demonstrates that employing a higher spreading speed in combination with a larger layer thickness can achieve a favorable powder bed quality while maintaining high spreading efficiency, thereby enabling a synergistic optimization of productivity and bed quality. This work elucidates the mesoscopic dynamic mechanisms governing the powder spreading process at Z-direction heterogeneous interfaces and provides a theoretical foundation for process optimization in multi-material laser powder bed fusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology Using Metal Materials and Its Applications)

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14 pages, 1612 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Performance of a Monolithic 3D-Printed Orthodontic Bracket–Crown System: An In-Vitro Study

by Selcen Eser Mısır, Serkan Görgülü, Simel Ayyıldız, Gökhan Serhat Duran and Kübra Gülnur Topsakal

Materials 2026, 19(8), 1584; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19081584 - 15 Apr 2026

Viewed by 438

Abstract

This study evaluated the resistance under load of a novel monolithic prosthetic design integrating functional orthodontic components within a digitally fabricated framework. Sixty-six specimens were allocated into three groups: (1) a Design Group consisting of one-piece 3D-printed customized metal copings with integrated brackets or tubes; (2) a Porcelain Crown Group with conventionally bonded orthodontic attachments; and (3) a Natural Teeth Group with brackets and tubes bonded to extracted human teeth. Each group included premolar (bracket) and molar (tube) subgroups (n = 11). All specimens were subjected to shear loading using a universal testing machine. Higher resistance values were observed in the monolithic group (92.56 ± 63.88 MPa) (p < 0.001); however, these values represent structural resistance rather than shear bond strength. Despite the wide variability, all measured values remained above the clinically accepted threshold. No statistically significant differences were observed between porcelain crowns and natural teeth in premolar or molar subgroups. The findings indicate that eliminating the adhesive interface enhances structural integrity under shear forces. This monolithic orthodontic–prosthetic approach may provide a clinically relevant alternative in cases where conventional bonding is not feasible and supports a fully digital, patient-specific workflow through scanner library integration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology Using Metal Materials and Its Applications)

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14 pages, 2544 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication and Performance Evaluation of 3D-Printed Zinc–Manganese Flexible Batteries

by Ernan Ju, Cong Yan and Li Wu

Materials 2026, 19(7), 1309; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19071309 - 26 Mar 2026

Viewed by 478

Abstract

To meet the requirements of flexibility and high performance for energy storage devices in flexible wearable electronic equipment, the MnO₂/acetylene black composite flexible cathodes is fabricated via 3D printing technology and the aqueous manganese-based zinc-ion flexible batteries are assembled. Based on bending and torsion mechanical tests, and the electrochemical tests, the optimal 3D printing electrode structure was determined. The micromorphology of the electrode after mechanical tests shows that when the printed lines of the upper and lower layers form a 30° angle, the electrode sheet exhibits the least damage. Electrochemical tests indicated that it had an ohmic resistance of 2.052 Ω, an interfacial charge transfer resistance of 141.1 Ω, a specific capacity of 103 mAh/g at 50 mA/g, and a specific capacity of 65 mAh/g at 500 mA/g. Compared with traditional coated electrodes, the 3D-printed electrode showed significantly improved diffusion coefficient, conductivity, and cycle stability. The assembled 3D-printed flexible battery could stably power a 1.5 V LED bulb under flat, bent, and twisted states. It provides a feasible solution for the development of high-performance flexible energy storage devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology Using Metal Materials and Its Applications)

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15 pages, 5440 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mitigating the Anisotropy of the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of L-PBF-Fabricated H13 Steel via Rare Earth Ce Addition

by Xiaodan Fan, Yuhua Deng, Yingkang Wei, Yaojia Ren, Sitong Chen, Yongwei Lv, Jilei Zhu and Shifeng Liu

Materials 2026, 19(4), 755; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19040755 - 15 Feb 2026

Viewed by 522

Abstract

H13 tool steel is widely used in the hot work die industry owing to its excellent mechanical properties. However, the inherent anisotropy of its microstructural and mechanical properties during additive manufacturing (AM) via laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) hinders its broader application. In the current study, Ce-containing and as-built samples were prepared in both vertical and horizontal directions, and their microstructures and tensile properties were investigated. Notably, the grain size of the vertical samples is approximately 2.7 μm, which is 19.2% smaller than that of the horizontal samples in L-PBF H13 steel. In addition, the retained austenite (RA) content in the vertical samples reaches as high as 19.7%, whereas in the horizontal samples, it is only 0.4%. After the addition of Ce, the columnar grains of the building direction (BD) samples transform into equiaxed grains. The RA content of the scanning direction (SD) samples and BD samples is 6.3% and 5.7%, respectively. The tensile test results further demonstrate that Ce-containing BD samples exhibit a tensile strength of 2025.3 MPa and an elongation of 17.3%, with the elongation difference between the two directions being only 0.2%. The addition of Ce reduces microstructural anisotropy, resulting in a significant decrease in the mechanical property anisotropy of the formed parts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology Using Metal Materials and Its Applications)

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21 pages, 7353 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mitigating Solidification Cracking in LPBF-Processed K418 Superalloy via Substrate Preheating and Layer Thickness Optimization

by Deqin Zhao, Jie Pei, Chenxue Ma and Rengeng Li

Materials 2026, 19(3), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19030501 - 27 Jan 2026

Viewed by 559

Abstract

This study systematically investigates the influence of key process parameters—layer thickness and substrate preheating—on solidification cracking in K418 nickel-based superalloy fabricated by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). For a 30 μm layer, preheating to 350 °C combined with a volumetric energy density (VED) of 60–80 J/mm³ effectively suppressed hot cracking while achieving a relative density > 99%. Preheating to 200 °C showed limited effectiveness. Without preheating, increasing the layer thickness to 60 μm reduced cracking compared to 30 μm, yet preheating became counterproductive under this thicker condition due to excessive thermal accumulation and increased shrinkage stress. Microscopic analysis revealed that cracks propagated along high-angle grain boundaries accompanied by the segregation of low-melting-point elements (O, B, Si, C), with cracking attributed to thermal stress and grain boundary weakening during rapid solidification. This work establishes 350 °C preheating with moderate VED as an effective strategy for manufacturing high-density, crack-minimized K418 alloy components via LPBF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology Using Metal Materials and Its Applications)

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27 pages, 6986 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Process Parameters and Lap Ratio for Laser Cladding IN718 Repair of EA4T Steel

by Shaoping Hu, Yanchong Gao, Longfeng Sun, Chao Zhang and Tianbiao Yu

Materials 2025, 18(21), 4992; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18214992 - 31 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 979

Abstract

Laser cladding offers distinct advantages over traditional manufacturing methods, including low heat input, minimal dilution ratio, dense clad layers, and robust bonding. It is widely employed for surface strengthening of metals to enhance performance and repair failed components, thereby reducing material waste. This study investigates laser cladding repair of EA4T steel, focusing on examining the effects of laser power, scanning speed, and powder feed rate on melt pool dilution ratio and shape factor during cladding of IN718 material onto EA4T steel substrate. Orthogonal experiments were conducted to investigate the combined effects of different process parameters on dilution rate and shape factor. Optimal process parameters were determined by comprehensively evaluating melt pool cross-sectional morphology and internal defects. Based on this, theoretical lap calculations were performed, and the optimal theoretical lap ratio was obtained through experiments. Experiments indicated that the influence of process parameter variations on molten pool morphology parameters is not linear; the combined effects of all factors must be comprehensively considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology Using Metal Materials and Its Applications)

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Review

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58 pages, 3612 KB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress on Additively Manufactured Porous Structures of Nickel-Based Superalloys

by Shenghang Xu, Yiye Pan, Nanxuan Mei, Shaoqi Jia, Minghao Huang, Chao Ding, Xin Yang, Jinglong Li, Rong Wang and Huiping Tang

Materials 2026, 19(10), 2144; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19102144 - 20 May 2026

Viewed by 94

Abstract

Nickel-based superalloys are key materials for aerospace and gas turbine applications. Traditional manufacturing approaches struggle to produce controllable porous structures with complex topologies. This review focuses on additively manufactured porous Ni-based superalloys, and summarizes progress in porous structure design, including disordered, lattice, TPMS, bio-inspired, and AI-assisted structures. Common additive manufacturing technologies are introduced, along with their effects on microstructure evolution and defect formation. The review discusses non-equilibrium microstructures, elemental segregation, and typical defects such as lack-of-fusion, keyhole porosity, and residual stress, as well as their influences on strength, fatigue, and creep behavior. Post-processing strategies for defect mitigation and performance optimization are also summarized. This review highlights the unique mechanical and physical behavior of porous structures compared to bulk materials, with an emphasis on anisotropy, stress localization, and defect sensitivity. Finally, several critical and specific challenges are identified, including multi-scale modeling, microstructure control in complex topologies, fatigue prediction, and physics-constrained AI design. This review aims to provide a clear, focused, and structurally consistent overview of the current state of the field, and to support future research on additively manufactured porous Ni-based superalloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Technology Using Metal Materials and Its Applications)

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