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1033 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toxicity of Cultured Bullseye Puffer Fish Sphoeroides annulatus

by Erick J. Nuñez-Vazquez, Armando Garcia-Ortega, Angel I. Campa-Cordova, Isabel Abdo De la Parra, Lilia Ibarra-Martinez, Alejandra Heredia-Tapia and Jose L. Ochoa

Mar. Drugs 2012, 10(2), 329-339; https://doi.org/10.3390/md10020329 - 3 Feb 2012

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 12706

Abstract

The toxin content in various life cycle stages of tank-cultivated bullseye puffer (Sphoeroides annulatus) were analyzed by mouse bioassay and ESI-MS spectrometry analysis. The presence of toxin content was determined in extracts of sperm, eggs, embryo, larvae, post-larvae, juvenile, pre-adult, and [...] Read more.

The toxin content in various life cycle stages of tank-cultivated bullseye puffer (Sphoeroides annulatus) were analyzed by mouse bioassay and ESI-MS spectrometry analysis. The presence of toxin content was determined in extracts of sperm, eggs, embryo, larvae, post-larvae, juvenile, pre-adult, and adult fish, as well as in food items used during the cultivation of the species. Our findings show that only the muscle of juveniles, the viscera of pre-adults, and muscle, liver, and gonad of adult specimens were slightly toxic ( < 1 mouse unit). Thus, cultivated S. annulatus, as occurs with other cultivated puffer fish species, does not represent a food safety risk to consumers. This is the first report of toxin analysis covering the complete life stages of a puffer fish under controlled conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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329 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tetrodotoxin-Bupivacaine-Epinephrine Combinations for Prolonged Local Anesthesia

by Charles B. Berde, Umeshkumar Athiraman, Barak Yahalom, David Zurakowski, Gabriel Corfas and Christina Bognet

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(12), 2717-2728; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9122717 - 15 Dec 2011

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 9026

Abstract

Currently available local anesthetics have analgesic durations in humans generally less than 12 hours. Prolonged-duration local anesthetics will be useful for postoperative analgesia. Previous studies showed that in rats, combinations of tetrodotoxin (TTX) with bupivacaine had supra-additive effects on sciatic block durations. In [...] Read more.

Currently available local anesthetics have analgesic durations in humans generally less than 12 hours. Prolonged-duration local anesthetics will be useful for postoperative analgesia. Previous studies showed that in rats, combinations of tetrodotoxin (TTX) with bupivacaine had supra-additive effects on sciatic block durations. In those studies, epinephrine combined with TTX prolonged blocks more than 10-fold, while reducing systemic toxicity. TTX, formulated as Tectin, is in phase III clinical trials as an injectable systemic analgesic for chronic cancer pain. Here, we examine dose-duration relationships and sciatic nerve histology following local nerve blocks with combinations of Tectin with bupivacaine 0.25% (2.5 mg/mL) solutions, with or without epinephrine 5 µg/mL (1:200,000) in rats. Percutaneous sciatic blockade was performed in Sprague-Dawley rats, and intensity and duration of sensory blockade was tested blindly with different Tectin-bupivacaine-epinephrine combinations. Between-group comparisons were analyzed using ANOVA and post-hoc Sidak tests. Nerves were examined blindly for signs of injury. Blocks containing bupivacaine 0.25% with Tectin 10 µM and epinephrine 5 µg/mL were prolonged by roughly 3-fold compared to blocks with bupivacaine 0.25% plain (P < 0.001) or bupivacaine 0.25% with epinephrine 5 µg/mL (P < 0.001). Nerve histology was benign for all groups. Combinations of Tectin in bupivacaine 0.25% with epinephrine 5 µg/mL appear promising for prolonged duration of local anesthesia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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833 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tetrodotoxin Sensitivity of the Vertebrate Cardiac Na⁺ Current

by Matti Vornanen, Minna Hassinen and Jaakko Haverinen

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(11), 2409-2422; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9112409 - 21 Nov 2011

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 9240

Abstract

Evolutionary origin and physiological significance of the tetrodotoxin (TTX) resistance of the vertebrate cardiac Na⁺ current (I_Na) is still unresolved. To this end, TTX sensitivity of the cardiac I_Na was examined in cardiac myocytes of a cyclostome (lamprey), three [...] Read more.

Evolutionary origin and physiological significance of the tetrodotoxin (TTX) resistance of the vertebrate cardiac Na⁺ current (I_Na) is still unresolved. To this end, TTX sensitivity of the cardiac I_Na was examined in cardiac myocytes of a cyclostome (lamprey), three teleost fishes (crucian carp, burbot and rainbow trout), a clawed frog, a snake (viper) and a bird (quail). In lamprey, teleost fishes, frog and bird the cardiac I_Na was highly TTX-sensitive with EC₅₀-values between 1.4 and 6.6 nmol·L⁻¹. In the snake heart, about 80% of the I_Na was TTX-resistant with EC₅₀ value of 0.65 μmol·L⁻¹, the rest being TTX-sensitive (EC₅₀ = 0.5 nmol·L⁻¹). Although TTX-resistance of the cardiac I_Na appears to be limited to mammals and reptiles, the presence of TTX-resistant isoform of Na⁺ channel in the lamprey heart suggest an early evolutionary origin of the TTX-resistance, perhaps in the common ancestor of all vertebrates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation and Identification of a New Tetrodotoxin-Producing Bacterial Species, Raoultella terrigena, from Hong Kong Marine Puffer Fish Takifugu niphobles

by Vincent Chung-Him Yu, Peter Hoi-Fu Yu, Kin-Chung Ho and Fred Wang-Fat Lee

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(11), 2384-2396; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9112384 - 14 Nov 2011

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 9979

Abstract

Puffer fish, Takifugu niphobles, collected from the Hong Kong coastal waters were screened for tetrodotoxin-producing bacteria. A Gram-negative, non-acid-fast, non-sporing and rod shaped bacterial strain (designated as gutB01) was isolated from the intestine of the puffer fish and was shown to produce [...] Read more.

Puffer fish, Takifugu niphobles, collected from the Hong Kong coastal waters were screened for tetrodotoxin-producing bacteria. A Gram-negative, non-acid-fast, non-sporing and rod shaped bacterial strain (designated as gutB01) was isolated from the intestine of the puffer fish and was shown to produce tetrodotoxin (TTX). Based on the Microbial Identification (MIDI) and 16S-23S rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) phylogenetic analysis, the strain was identified as Raoultella terrigena. The TTX production ability of the strain was confirmed by mouse bioassay, ELISA and mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF). Our results reiterate that the TTX found in puffer fish was likely produced by the associated bacteria and TTX are widely produced amongst a diversity of bacterial species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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264 KiB

Open AccessArticle

LC/MS Analysis of Tetrodotoxin and Its Deoxy Analogs in the Marine Puffer Fish Fugu niphobles from the Southern Coast of Korea, and in the Brackishwater Puffer Fishes Tetraodon nigroviridis and Tetraodon biocellatus from Southeast Asia

by Jun-Ho Jang, Jong-Soo Lee and Mari Yotsu-Yamashita

Mar. Drugs 2010, 8(4), 1049-1058; https://doi.org/10.3390/md8041049 - 31 Mar 2010

Cited by 66 | Viewed by 11174

Abstract

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its deoxy analogs, 5-deoxyTTX, 11-deoxyTTX, 6,11-dideoxyTTX, and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX, were quantified in the tissues of three female and three male specimens of the marine puffer fish, Fugu niphobles, from the southern coast of Korea, and in the whole body of the [...] Read more.

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its deoxy analogs, 5-deoxyTTX, 11-deoxyTTX, 6,11-dideoxyTTX, and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX, were quantified in the tissues of three female and three male specimens of the marine puffer fish, Fugu niphobles, from the southern coast of Korea, and in the whole body of the brackishwater puffer fishes, Tetraodon nigroviridis (12 specimens) and Tetrodon biocellatus (three specimens) from Southeast Asia using LC/MS in single ion mode (SIM). Identification of these four deoxy analogs in the ovarian tissue of F. niphobles were further confirmed by LC/MS/MS. TTX and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX were detected in all three puffer fish species as the major TTX analogs, similar to Japanese Fugu pardalis. While 6,11-dideoxyTTX was also found to be a major analog in almost all tissues of Korean F. niphobles, this analog was minor in the two Tetraodon species and Japanese F. pardalis. Among the tissues of F. niphobles, the concentrations of TTXs were highest in the ovaries (female) and skin (female and male). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regulation of the Spontaneous Augmentation of Na_V1.9 in Mouse Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons: Effect of PKA and PKC Pathways

by Jun-ichi Kakimura, Taixing Zheng, Noriko Uryu and Nobukuni Ogata

Mar. Drugs 2010, 8(3), 728-740; https://doi.org/10.3390/md8030728 - 19 Mar 2010

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 8996

Abstract

Sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglion express two kinds of tetrodotoxin resistant (TTX-R) isoforms of voltage-gated sodium channels, Na_V1.8 and Na_V1.9. These isoforms play key roles in the pathophysiology of chronic pain. Of special interest is Na_V [...] Read more.

Sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglion express two kinds of tetrodotoxin resistant (TTX-R) isoforms of voltage-gated sodium channels, Na_V1.8 and Na_V1.9. These isoforms play key roles in the pathophysiology of chronic pain. Of special interest is Na_V1.9: our previous studies revealed a unique property of the Na_V1.9 current, i.e., the Na_V1.9 current shows a gradual and notable up-regulation of the peak amplitude during recording (“spontaneous augmentation of Na_V1.9”). However, the mechanism underlying the spontaneous augmentation of Na_V1.9 is still unclear. In this study, we examined the effects of protein kinases A and C (PKA and PKC), on the spontaneous augmentation of Na_V1.9. The spontaneous augmentation of the Na_V1.9 current was significantly suppressed by activation of PKA, whereas activation of PKA did not affect the voltage dependence of inactivation for the Na_V1.9 current. On the contrary, the finding that activation of PKC can affect the voltage dependence of inactivation for Na_V1.9 in the perforated patch recordings, where the augmentation does not occur, suggests that the effects of PMA are independent of the augmentation process. These results indicate that the spontaneous augmentation of Na_V1.9 was regulated directly by PKA, and indirectly by PKC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluidic Force Discrimination Assays: A New Technology for Tetrodotoxin Detection

by Betsy Jean Yakes, Stacey M. Etheridge, Shawn P. Mulvaney and Cy R. Tamanaha

Mar. Drugs 2010, 8(3), 565-576; https://doi.org/10.3390/md8030565 - 10 Mar 2010

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 13274

Abstract

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a low molecular weight (~319 Da) neurotoxin found in a number of animal species, including pufferfish. Protection from toxin tainted food stuffs requires rapid, sensitive, and specific diagnostic tests. An emerging technique for the detection of both proteins and nucleic [...] Read more.

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a low molecular weight (~319 Da) neurotoxin found in a number of animal species, including pufferfish. Protection from toxin tainted food stuffs requires rapid, sensitive, and specific diagnostic tests. An emerging technique for the detection of both proteins and nucleic acids is Fluidic Force Discrimination (FFD) assays. This simple and rapid method typically uses a sandwich immunoassay format labeled with micrometer-diameter beads and has the novel capability of removing nonspecifically attached beads under controlled, fluidic conditions. This technique allows for near real-time, multiplexed analysis at levels of detection that exceed many of the conventional transduction methods (e.g., ELISAs). In addition, the large linear dynamic range afforded by FFD should decrease the need to perform multiple sample dilutions, a common challenge for food testing. By applying FFD assays to an inhibition immunoassay platform specific for TTX and transduction via low magnification microscopy, levels of detection of ~15 ng/mL and linear dynamic ranges of 4 to 5 orders of magnitude were achieved. The results from these studies on the first small molecule FFD assay, along with the impact to detection of seafood toxins, will be discussed in this manuscript. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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Review

Jump to: Research

1168 KiB

Open AccessReview

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) as a Therapeutic Agent for Pain

by Francisco Rafael Nieto, Enrique José Cobos, Miguel Ángel Tejada, Cristina Sánchez-Fernández, Rafael González-Cano and Cruz Miguel Cendán

Mar. Drugs 2012, 10(2), 281-305; https://doi.org/10.3390/md10020281 - 31 Jan 2012

Cited by 120 | Viewed by 47982

Abstract

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin that blocks voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs). VGSCs play a critical role in neuronal function under both physiological and pathological conditions. TTX has been extensively used to functionally characterize VGSCs, which can be classified as TTX-sensitive or TTX-resistant [...] Read more.

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin that blocks voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs). VGSCs play a critical role in neuronal function under both physiological and pathological conditions. TTX has been extensively used to functionally characterize VGSCs, which can be classified as TTX-sensitive or TTX-resistant channels according to their sensitivity to this toxin. Alterations in the expression and/or function of some specific TTX-sensitive VGSCs have been implicated in a number of chronic pain conditions. The administration of TTX at doses below those that interfere with the generation and conduction of action potentials in normal (non-injured) nerves has been used in humans and experimental animals under different pain conditions. These data indicate a role for TTX as a potential therapeutic agent for pain. This review focuses on the preclinical and clinical evidence supporting a potential analgesic role for TTX. In addition, the contribution of specific TTX-sensitive VGSCs to pain is reviewed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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578 KiB

Open AccessReview

Tetrodotoxin as a Tool to Elucidate Sensory Transduction Mechanisms: The Case for the Arterial Chemoreceptors of the Carotid Body

by Asuncion Rocher, Ana Isabel Caceres, Ana Obeso and Constancio Gonzalez

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(12), 2683-2704; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9122683 - 15 Dec 2011

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8091

Abstract

Carotid bodies (CBs) are secondary sensory receptors in which the sensing elements, chemoreceptor cells, are activated by decreases in arterial PO₂ (hypoxic hypoxia). Upon activation, chemoreceptor cells (also known as Type I and glomus cells) increase their rate of release of neurotransmitters [...] Read more.

Carotid bodies (CBs) are secondary sensory receptors in which the sensing elements, chemoreceptor cells, are activated by decreases in arterial PO₂ (hypoxic hypoxia). Upon activation, chemoreceptor cells (also known as Type I and glomus cells) increase their rate of release of neurotransmitters that drive the sensory activity in the carotid sinus nerve (CSN) which ends in the brain stem where reflex responses are coordinated. When challenged with hypoxic hypoxia, the physiopathologically most relevant stimulus to the CBs, they are activated and initiate ventilatory and cardiocirculatory reflexes. Reflex increase in minute volume ventilation promotes CO₂ removal from alveoli and a decrease in alveolar PCO₂ensues. Reduced alveolar PCO₂ makes possible alveolar and arterial PO₂ to increase minimizing the intensity of hypoxia. The ventilatory effect, in conjunction the cardiocirculatory components of the CB chemoreflex, tend to maintain an adequate supply of oxygen to the tissues. The CB has been the focus of attention since the discovery of its nature as a sensory organ by de Castro (1928) and the discovery of its function as the origin of ventilatory reflexes by Heymans group (1930). A great deal of effort has been focused on the study of the mechanisms involved in O₂ detection. This review is devoted to this topic, mechanisms of oxygen sensing. Starting from a summary of the main theories evolving through the years, we will emphasize the nature and significance of the findings obtained with veratridine and tetrodotoxin (TTX) in the genesis of current models of O₂-sensing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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272 KiB

Open AccessReview

Analytical Challenges: Determination of Tetrodotoxin in Human Urine and Plasma by LC-MS/MS

by Kelvin Sze-Yin Leung, Bonnie Mei-Wah Fong and Yeuk-Ki Tsoi

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(11), 2291-2303; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9112291 - 8 Nov 2011

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 9606

Abstract

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a powerful sodium channel blocker found in puffer fish and some marine animals. Cases of TTX poisoning most often result from puffer fish ingestion. Diagnosis is mainly from patient’s signs and symptoms or the detection of TTX in the leftover [...] Read more.

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a powerful sodium channel blocker found in puffer fish and some marine animals. Cases of TTX poisoning most often result from puffer fish ingestion. Diagnosis is mainly from patient’s signs and symptoms or the detection of TTX in the leftover food. If leftover food is unavailable, the determination of TTX in the patient’s urine and/or plasma is essential to confirm the diagnosis. Although various methods for the determination of TTX have been published, most of them are for food tissue samples. Dealing with human urine and blood samples is much more challenging. Unlike in food, the amount of toxin in the urine and blood of a patient is generally extremely low; therefore a very sensitive method is required to detect it. In this regard, mass spectrometry (MS) methods are the best choice. Since TTX is a very polar compound, there will be lack of retention on conventional reverse-phase columns; use of ion pair reagent or hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) can help solve this problem. The problem of ion suppression is another challenge in analyzing polar compound in biological samples. This review will discuss different MS methods and their pros and cons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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563 KiB

Open AccessReview

Gustatory Detection of Tetrodotoxin and Saxitoxin, and Its Competitive Inhibition by Quinine and Strychnine in Freshwater Fishes

by Toshiaki J. Hara

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(11), 2283-2290; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9112283 - 8 Nov 2011

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6660

Abstract

Fish detect extremely low levels of marine toxins tetrodotoxin (TTX) and saxitoxin (STX) via the specialized gustatory receptor(s). Physiological and pharmacological studies show that receptor(s) for TTX and STX are distinct from those which detect feeding stimulant amino acids and bile acids, and [...] Read more.

Fish detect extremely low levels of marine toxins tetrodotoxin (TTX) and saxitoxin (STX) via the specialized gustatory receptor(s). Physiological and pharmacological studies show that receptor(s) for TTX and STX are distinct from those which detect feeding stimulant amino acids and bile acids, and that TTX and STX do not share the same receptor populations, while interacting with quinine and strychnine in a competitive fashion suggestive of an antidotal relationship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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Open AccessReview

The Chemical Synthesis of Tetrodoxin: An Ongoing Quest

by Jaclyn Chau and Marco A. Ciufolini

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(10), 2046-2074; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9102046 - 20 Oct 2011

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 12878

Abstract

This contribution reviews all the synthetic work on tetrodotoxin that has appeared in the literature through June 2011. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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218 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Tetrodotoxin Receptor of Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels—Perspectives from Interactions with μ-Conotoxins

by Robert J. French, Doju Yoshikami, Michael F. Sheets and Baldomero M. Olivera

Mar. Drugs 2010, 8(7), 2153-2161; https://doi.org/10.3390/md8072153 - 13 Jul 2010

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 11066

Abstract

Neurotoxin receptor site 1, in the outer vestibule of the conducting pore of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs), was first functionally defined by its ability to bind the guanidinium-containing agents, tetrodotoxin (TTX) and saxitoxin (STX). Subsequent studies showed that peptide μ-conotoxins competed for binding [...] Read more.

Neurotoxin receptor site 1, in the outer vestibule of the conducting pore of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs), was first functionally defined by its ability to bind the guanidinium-containing agents, tetrodotoxin (TTX) and saxitoxin (STX). Subsequent studies showed that peptide μ-conotoxins competed for binding at site 1. All of these natural inhibitors block single sodium channels in an all-or-none manner on binding. With the discovery of an increasing variety of μ-conotoxins, and the synthesis of numerous derivatives, observed interactions between the channel and these different ligands have become more complex. Certain μ-conotoxin derivatives block single-channel currents partially, rather than completely, thus enabling the demonstration of interactions between the bound toxin and the channel’s voltage sensor. Most recently, the relatively small μ-conotoxin KIIIA (16 amino acids) and its variants have been shown to bind simultaneously with TTX and exhibit both synergistic and antagonistic interactions with TTX. These interactions raise new pharmacological possibilities and place new constraints on the possible structures of the bound complexes of VGSCs with these toxins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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324 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Outer Vestibule of the Na⁺Channel–Toxin Receptor and Modulator of Permeation as Well as Gating

by René Cervenka, Touran Zarrabi, Peter Lukacs and Hannes Todt

Mar. Drugs 2010, 8(4), 1373-1393; https://doi.org/10.3390/md8041373 - 21 Apr 2010

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 10232

Abstract

The outer vestibule of voltage-gated Na⁺ channels is formed by extracellular loops connecting the S5 and S6 segments of all four domains (“P-loops”), which fold back into the membrane. Classically, this structure has been implicated in the control of ion permeation and [...] Read more.

The outer vestibule of voltage-gated Na⁺ channels is formed by extracellular loops connecting the S5 and S6 segments of all four domains (“P-loops”), which fold back into the membrane. Classically, this structure has been implicated in the control of ion permeation and in toxin blockage. However, conformational changes of the outer vestibule may also result in alterations in gating, as suggested by several P-loop mutations that gave rise to gating changes. Moreover, partial pore block by mutated toxins may reverse gating changes induced by mutations. Therefore, toxins that bind to the outer vestibule can be used to modulate channel gating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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115 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Tetrodotoxin on the Mammalian Cardiovascular System

by Thomas Zimmer

Mar. Drugs 2010, 8(3), 741-762; https://doi.org/10.3390/md8030741 - 19 Mar 2010

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 15967

Abstract

The human genome encodes nine functional voltage-gated Na⁺ channels. Three of them, namely Na_v1.5, Na_v1.8, and Na_v1.9, are resistant to nanomolar concentrations of tetrodotoxin (TTX; IC₅₀ ≥ 1 μM). The other isoforms, which are predominantly [...] Read more.

The human genome encodes nine functional voltage-gated Na⁺ channels. Three of them, namely Na_v1.5, Na_v1.8, and Na_v1.9, are resistant to nanomolar concentrations of tetrodotoxin (TTX; IC₅₀ ≥ 1 μM). The other isoforms, which are predominantly expressed in the skeletal muscle and nervous system, are highly sensitive to TTX (IC₅₀ ~ 10 nM). During the last two decades, it has become evident that in addition to the major cardiac isoform Na_v1.5, several of those TTX sensitive isoforms are expressed in the mammalian heart. Whereas immunohistochemical and electrophysiological methods demonstrated functional expression in various heart regions, the physiological importance of those isoforms for cardiac excitation in higher mammals is still debated. This review summarizes our knowledge on the systemic cardiovascular effects of TTX in animals and humans, with a special focus on cardiac excitation and performance at lower concentrations of this marine drug. Altogether, these data strongly suggest that TTX sensitive Na⁺ channels, detected more recently in various heart tissues, are not involved in excitation phenomena in the healthy adult heart of higher mammals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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Open AccessReview

The Chemical and Evolutionary Ecology of Tetrodotoxin (TTX) Toxicity in Terrestrial Vertebrates

by Charles T. Hanifin

Mar. Drugs 2010, 8(3), 577-593; https://doi.org/10.3390/md8030577 - 10 Mar 2010

Cited by 128 | Viewed by 20128

Abstract

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is widely distributed in marine taxa, however in terrestrial taxa it is limited to a single class of vertebrates (Amphibia). Tetrodotoxin present in the skin and eggs of TTX-bearing amphibians primarily serves as an antipredator defense and these taxa have provided [...] Read more.

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is widely distributed in marine taxa, however in terrestrial taxa it is limited to a single class of vertebrates (Amphibia). Tetrodotoxin present in the skin and eggs of TTX-bearing amphibians primarily serves as an antipredator defense and these taxa have provided excellent models for the study of the evolution and chemical ecology of TTX toxicity. The origin of TTX present in terrestrial vertebrates is controversial. In marine organisms the accepted hypothesis is that the TTX present in metazoans results from either dietary uptake of bacterially produced TTX or symbiosis with TTX producing bacteria, but this hypothesis may not be applicable to TTX-bearing amphibians. Here I review the taxonomic distribution and evolutionary ecology of TTX in amphibians with some attention to the origin of TTX present in these taxa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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Open AccessReview

Behavioral and Chemical Ecology of Marine Organisms with Respect to Tetrodotoxin

by Becky L. Williams

Mar. Drugs 2010, 8(3), 381-398; https://doi.org/10.3390/md8030381 - 26 Feb 2010

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 16815

Abstract

The behavioral and chemical ecology of marine organisms that possess tetrodotoxin (TTX) has not been comprehensively reviewed in one work to date. The evidence for TTX as an antipredator defense, as venom, as a sex pheromone, and as an attractant for TTX-sequestering organisms [...] Read more.

The behavioral and chemical ecology of marine organisms that possess tetrodotoxin (TTX) has not been comprehensively reviewed in one work to date. The evidence for TTX as an antipredator defense, as venom, as a sex pheromone, and as an attractant for TTX-sequestering organisms is discussed. Little is known about the adaptive value of TTX in microbial producers; thus, I focus on what is known about metazoans that are purported to accumulate TTX through diet or symbioses. Much of what has been proposed is inferred based on the anatomical distribution of TTX. Direct empirical tests of these hypotheses are absent in most cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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Open AccessReview

The Tetrodotoxin Binding Site Is within the Outer Vestibule of the Sodium Channel

by Harry A. Fozzard and Gregory M. Lipkind

Mar. Drugs 2010, 8(2), 219-234; https://doi.org/10.3390/md8020219 - 1 Feb 2010

Cited by 111 | Viewed by 15983

Abstract

Tetrodotoxin and saxitoxin are small, compact asymmetrical marine toxins that block voltage-gated Na channels with high affinity and specificity. They enter the channel pore’s outer vestibule and bind to multiple residues that control permeation. Radiolabeled toxins were key contributors to channel protein purification [...] Read more.

Tetrodotoxin and saxitoxin are small, compact asymmetrical marine toxins that block voltage-gated Na channels with high affinity and specificity. They enter the channel pore’s outer vestibule and bind to multiple residues that control permeation. Radiolabeled toxins were key contributors to channel protein purification and subsequent cloning. They also helped identify critical structural elements called P loops. Spacial organization of their mutation-identified interaction sites in molecular models has generated a molecular image of the TTX binding site in the outer vestibule and the critical permeation and selectivity features of this region. One site in the channel’s domain I P loop determines affinity differences in mammalian isoforms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin 2011)

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