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Physiological, Pathological, and Clinical Effects of Exercise Training and Physical Activity

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A special issue of Life (ISSN 2075-1729). This special issue belongs to the section "Physiology and Pathology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2026 | Viewed by 4934

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Chia-Huei Lin

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Guest Editor

1. College of Nursing, National Defense Medical University, Taipei 11490, Taiwan
2. Graduated Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical University, Taipei 11490, Taiwan
Interests: rehabilitation; nursing; exercise; chronic disease management

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Exercise is a potent physiological stimulus capable of modulating multiple biological systems. In individuals with chronic diseases or those exposed to occupational stress, such as military personnel, patients with multimorbidity, or shift workers, understanding the molecular, cellular, and systemic adaptations to exercise is essential for advancing personalized health strategies.

This Special Issue will explore the multifaceted role of exercise training and physical activity across physiological regulation, pathological mechanisms, and clinical interventions. Given the growing global interest in lifestyle-based health promotion and disease management, this Special Issue welcomes high-quality original research, reviews, and case studies that investigate the biological foundations and therapeutic potential of physical activity in both healthy and diseased populations.

We are particularly interested in studies that achieve the following:

Advance understanding of how exercise influences molecular, cellular, and systemic functions;
Examine the role of physical activity in preventing and managing chronic diseases;
Assess the clinical outcomes of structured or individualized exercise programs.

We welcome contributions in the following areas:

Mechanistic insights into exercise-induced physiological adaptations;
Effects of physical activity on metabolic, cardiovascular, neurological, or musculoskeletal health;
Exercise interventions in aging, obesity, diabetes, cancer, stroke, or pulmonary diseases;
Randomized controlled trials evaluating clinical efficacy of training programs;
Personalized or precision exercise prescriptions.

We encourage interdisciplinary research that integrates perspectives from medicine, sports science, and physiology.

We look forward to receiving your scientific contributions and participating in a productive exchange that advances the fields of translational exercise biology and personalized medicine.

Dr. Chia-Huei Lin
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Life is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

exercise training
physical activity
individualized exercise prescription
physiological adaptation
chronic disease prevention
cardiovascular fitness
musculoskeletal health
neuroplasticity
metabolic syndrome
inflammation and immunity
stroke recovery
physical activity monitoring
mental health and exercise
cognitive function
aging and physical activity
sedentary behavior
physical function outcomes
patient-reported outcomes
clinical trial

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 1405 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of Small-Sided Games and Tabata High-Intensity Interval Training on Physical, Psychophysiological, and Cognitive Responses in Male Soccer Players

by Alirıza Han Civan, Adem Civan, Mahmut Esat Uzun, Soner Akgün, Enes Akdemir and Ali Kerim Yılmaz

Life 2026, 16(4), 646; https://doi.org/10.3390/life16040646 - 11 Apr 2026

Viewed by 600

Abstract

Background: Small-sided games (SSG) and running-based high-intensity interval training (HIIT) are commonly used in soccer conditioning to improve aerobic fitness and performance. Although both modalities induce high cardiovascular stress, their acute neuromuscular, perceptual, and cognitive responses remain incompletely understood when examined within the same cohort. This study compared the acute physical, psychophysiological, and cognitive responses to SSG and Tabata-type HIIT in amateur male soccer players. Methods: Thirty-two male amateur players (n = 32; age: 20.53 ± 1.65 years) completed a counterbalanced within-subject crossover design. Participants performed a 4v4 SSG protocol and a running-based Tabata-HIIT protocol (8 × 20 s, 10 s recovery) on separate days (48 h apart). Countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), 20-m sprint, agility t-test, heart rate, perceived exertion (Borg CR-10), mental effort, and cognitive performance (d2 test) were assessed pre- and post-exercise. Parametric variables were analyzed using 2 × 2 repeated-measures ANOVA (time × protocol; η²p), and non-parametric data were analyzed using Friedman and Wilcoxon tests (r) (p < 0.05). Results: Both protocols elicited similar cardiovascular responses (~90% HR_max). A significant protocol × time interaction was observed for CMJ (p < 0.001), showing a decline after Tabata-HIIT, whereas performance was maintained after SSG. No inter-protocol differences were found for SJ, sprint, or agility. Perceived exertion and mental effort during recovery were higher following Tabata-HIIT (p < 0.05). Cognitive performance improved after both protocols (p < 0.001), with no between-protocol differences. Conclusions: Despite comparable cardiovascular load, Tabata-HIIT was associated with greater acute neuromuscular and perceptual strain, whereas SSG preserved neuromuscular performance. Perceptual and mental responses may therefore differ despite similar physiological intensity, which may inform soccer training prescription. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Pathological, and Clinical Effects of Exercise Training and Physical Activity)

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11 pages, 1897 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Analysis of Hip and Knee Joint Movement Characteristics in Overweight Individuals During Sit-to-Stand Transfers—Based on Statistical Parametric Mapping: An Exploratory Study

by Guohui Zhao, Feifei Ma and Lei Li

Life 2026, 16(3), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/life16030515 - 20 Mar 2026

Viewed by 457

Abstract

Objective: The objective of this study was to explore the motion characteristics and movement strategies of the hip and knee joints in overweight individuals during sit-to-stand (STS) transfers using statistical parametric mapping (SPM). Methods: Twenty subjects were divided into an overweight group (n = 10) and a normal-weight group (n = 10) based on body mass index (BMI). The Qualisys infrared motion capture system and Kistler three-dimensional force platform were used for motion data collection, and Visual 3D and Matlab were used to calculate the angles and torque indicators of the lower limb hip and knee joints. Results: During the STS process, the maximum hip flexion angle of the overweight group was smaller than that of the control group (Z = −1.83, p = 0.043, r = 0.39), while the maximum abduction and external rotation angles were greater than those of the control group (Z = −2.15, p = 0.022, r = 0.46; Z = −2.02, p = 0.028, r = 0.48). SPM analysis showed that during the 0–52% phase of the hip joint in the frontal plane, the abduction amplitude of the overweight population was greater than that of the normal population (p < 0.05). The minimum external rotation angle of the knee joint was less than that of the control group (F(1,18) = 9.135, p = 0.043). The peak internal adduction and abduction torque of the hip joint in the overweight group was greater than that of the control group (Z = 2.37, p = 0.017, r = 0.54). Conclusions: Compared with the normal-weight population, the overweight population exhibited distinct motion characteristics of the hip and knee joints during the STS, with particularly pronounced differences in the hip joint. To maintain stability during STS, the overweight population adopts a compensatory movement strategy featuring a wider base of support via hip abduction and increased muscular torque to control frontal plane stability, which imposes greater functional loads on the hip joint. BMI-related movement characteristics should be studied in young adults under controlled experimental conditions, and future studies are needed to verify whether similar patterns exist in older adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Pathological, and Clinical Effects of Exercise Training and Physical Activity)

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20 pages, 1434 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute and Long-Term Physiological and Hematological Responses in Well-Trained Young Swimmers Throughout a Training Season

by Dimitra Nafpaktitou, Anastassios Philippou, Nikos Vagiakakos, George Vagiakakos, Alexandros Nikolopoulos, Markos Mantaloufas, George Chrousos, Michael Koutsilieris and Theodoros Platanou

Life 2026, 16(3), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/life16030413 - 3 Mar 2026

Viewed by 962

Abstract

The physiological and hematological responses to exercise and the corresponding adaptations in high-level sports have become an important issue, from both the health and the physical performance points of view. This study investigated the fluctuations in physiological and hematological variables of young swimmers throughout a training season. Twelve well-trained male swimmers (age: 14 ± 0.3 y) participated in the study. Measurements were carried out at the beginning of the training season (T1) and pre and post the taper of each of the two competitive periods (i.e., T2, T3 for the first training macrocycle, and T4, T5 for the second macrocycle, respectively). At each of the above time points, maximum oxygen uptake (VO_2max) was estimated, and blood samples were collected before and 1 h post a maximal 400 m swimming testing to measure hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit (Hct), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean cell hemoglobin (MCH), mean cell hemoglobin corpuscular (MCHC), platelets (PLT), red blood cells (RBCs), and albumin (Alb). Adjustment for exercise-induced plasma volume changes was performed before all data analyses. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures followed by Bonferroni post hoc analyses was used for statistics. Multiple correlations with Bonferroni correction were also performed. Significant improvement of performance from T1 to the end of the study was recorded. Moreover, significant changes in lactate concentration ([La⁻]) with significant decrease at T3 and increase at T4 were also observed. Significant interaction (pre–post-test × test condition) for Hct, Hb, MCV, MCH, and RBCs; the main effect of test condition for Hct, MCV, MCHC, PLT, and Alb; and pre–post-test for Hct, Hb, MCV, MCHC, and RBCs were observed. No significant changes for VO_2max and HR were recorded (p > 0.05). Significant correlations between MCV and MCH at T1, T2, T4, and Hct and Hb at T1, T4, T5 were found. These results indicate that swimming training throughout a season induces both acute and long-term effects on the physiological and hematological profile of young swimmers. These findings provide fundamental information about the effects of the training volume and intensity on physical performance and might be utilized as a useful source for future studies to further characterize the systemic and performance signature of training-induced adaptations during a competitive season in swimmers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Pathological, and Clinical Effects of Exercise Training and Physical Activity)

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14 pages, 925 KB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility and Preliminary Effects of Aquatic Exercise on Pulmonary Function and Dynamic Balance in Young Adult Smokers: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

by Ahmet Koyunlu, Zarife Pancar, Burak Karaca and Luca Russo

Life 2026, 16(3), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/life16030379 - 27 Feb 2026

Viewed by 571

Abstract

Background: Smoking is a major public health concern worldwide and is associated with adverse effects on pulmonary function, postural control, and overall physical performance. Aquatic exercise has gained increasing attention as a safe and effective training modality due to its unique physical properties. However, evidence regarding the effects of aquatic exercise on pulmonary function and dynamic balance in young adult smokers remains limited. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the effects of an 8-week aquatic exercise training program on pulmonary function parameters and dynamic balance performance in young adult smokers. Methods: Twenty-two physically inactive male smokers were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 11) or a control group (n = 11). The experimental group participated in an aquatic exercise program three times per week for eight weeks, while the control group maintained their usual daily activities. Pulmonary function parameters, including FEV₁, FVC, FEV₁/FVC, PEF, PIF, MVV, VC, TV, and IVC, were assessed using spirometers. Dynamic balance performance was evaluated using a portable dynamic balance platform under single-leg (right and left) and double-leg conditions. Data were analyzed using a two-way repeated-measures ANOVA. Results: Statistically significant time × group interaction effects were observed for vital capacity (VC) (p = 0.033, η²_p = 0.378) and tidal volume (TV) (p < 0.001, η²_p = 0.734), suggesting potentially greater changes in the experimental group compared to the control group. Peak expiratory flow (PEF) demonstrated significant main effects of time (p = 0.047) and group (p = 0.031). Dynamic balance performance showed statistically significant time × group interaction effects across right-leg, left-leg, and bilateral conditions (p < 0.01), with large effect sizes (η²_p = 0.762, 0.609, and 0.507, respectively). However, given the pilot nature and limited sample size of the study, these findings should be interpreted as preliminary. No significant changes were observed in FEV₁, FVC, or FEV₁/FVC ratio. Conclusions: This pilot randomized trial suggests that an 8-week aquatic exercise program is feasible and may produce preliminary improvements in selected pulmonary function parameters and dynamic balance in young adult smokers. Larger, adequately powered trials are required to confirm these findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Pathological, and Clinical Effects of Exercise Training and Physical Activity)

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11 pages, 645 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of a 30 s Maximal Anaerobic Cycling Test on Change-of-Direction Performance During Recovery

by Yeliz Pehlivan, Nedim Malkoç, Erdal Bal and Hamza Küçük

Life 2026, 16(1), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/life16010072 - 3 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 746

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the acute effects of a 30 s maximal anaerobic cycling test on change-of-direction performance during recovery and to determine whether these effects differed between genders and groups. A total of 64 university students who were actively participating in sports participated in the study (33 males, age: 21.0 ± 1.03 years; 31 females, age: 20.38 ± 0.91 years). Participants were assigned to an experimental or control group. Planned change-of-direction (COD) performance was assessed using the Illinois test at baseline and at the 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th minutes of recovery with a photocell timing system. Data were analyzed using a mixed-design ANOVA with Time as a within-subject factor and Group and Sex as between-subject factors. Significant main effects of Time, Group, and Sex were observed (p < 0.05), indicating time-dependent changes in COD performance, overall performance differences between groups, and sex-related differences in Illinois test times. However, no significant Time × Group, Time × Sex, or Time × Group × Sex interactions were found (p > 0.05), suggesting that the pattern of recovery over time was similar across groups and sexes. These findings indicate that a 30 s maximal anaerobic cycling test induces acute fatigue that affects planned change-of-direction performance and that recovery of Illinois test performance is not completed within 10 min, with similar recovery patterns observed across groups and sexes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Pathological, and Clinical Effects of Exercise Training and Physical Activity)

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25 pages, 1537 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Inter-Individual Heterogeneity in Aerobic Training Adaptations: Systematic Review of the Evidence Base for Personalized Exercise Prescription

by Haili Xiao and Jianchang Ren

Life 2025, 15(12), 1932; https://doi.org/10.3390/life15121932 - 17 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 981

Abstract

Personalized exercise prescriptions require identifying inter-individual differences in exercise intervention effects. This review examined whether true inter-individual differences exist after accounting for measurement error. PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE databases were systematically searched. Inclusion criteria included: (1) original randomized controlled trials or controlled trials using standardized, supervised aerobic exercise interventions, or meta-analyses examining inter-individual differences in aerobic training adaptations; (2) explicitly identifying the assessment of inter-individual response variability as a research objective; (3) Reporting sufficient statistical information to quantify inter-individual variability. The search yielded a total of 3203 studies, and ultimately 78 studies were included for systematic review. Main findings included: (1) Few studies appropriately considered random measurement error and within-individual variability when quantifying inter-individual differences. (2) Analysis of both primary studies and existing meta-analyses revealed a consistent lack of statistical evidence for true inter-individual differences. (3) Observed inter-individual variability was primarily attributed to uncontrolled measurement error or within-individual variability, not true individual response differences. The evidence analyzed in this systematic review indicates that there is insufficient support for true inter-individual differences in the effects of aerobic exercise training intervention. Given physiological complexity and methodological limitations, any conclusions on exercise intervention heterogeneity or individual responsiveness require caution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Pathological, and Clinical Effects of Exercise Training and Physical Activity)

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