Multiple Biomarkers for the Diagnosis and Precision Treatment of Depression

A special issue of Journal of Personalized Medicine (ISSN 2075-4426). This special issue belongs to the section "Disease Biomarkers".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 October 2025) | Viewed by 1506

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Guest Editor
Department of Psychiatry, Loyola University Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
Interests: affective disorders; anxiety; major depressive disorder; bipolar disorders; treatment resistance; pharmacogenomics; general psychiatry
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As defined by the FDA and NIH, a biomarker is “a defined characteristic that is measured as an indicator of normal biological processes, pathogenic processes or responses to an exposure or intervention”. Biomarkers have been used and continue to be used widely in almost all branches of medicine, but their use in psychiatry has lagged. This is understandable in view of the complexity and multifaceted presentation and pathologies of psychiatric disorders that make it very difficult to causally associate a distinct characteristic, be it a molecule, a gene, a physiologic process, or a radiographic finding. Frequently, psychiatric disorders coexist either with another primary psychiatric diagnosis or as comorbid diagnoses with medical conditions. Despite these inherent difficulties, the discovery of potential biomarkers linked to a psychiatric condition and/or to a specific symptom within a certain syndrome has shown truly impressive findings over the past few decades and continues to progress at a rapid pace. In this Special Issue, we will not attempt to present the vast array of findings indicative of potential biomarkers for depressive illness, as this would far exceed the limits of a Special Issue. Instead, we will focus on those biomarkers that have been extensively investigated and have been shown to possess validity, sensitivity, and reproducibility both as diagnostic biomarkers but also as monitoring biomarkers indicative of treatment response and overall outcome. Before any biomarker candidate can be approved for general clinical use and coverage by insurance carriers, key criteria and requirements must be met. I believe we have an array of such candidate biomarkers subdivided into the following main categories: molecular, physiologic, radiographic, genomic, and pharmacogenomic biomarkers. Some of these biomarkers can now be obtained during routine assessments, and therefore the immediate goal is to inform practitioners of the importance of including them in routine evaluations. As practitioners gain more experience, it will become easier to obtain formal approvals by licensing agents and insurance coverage.

Prof. Dr. Angelos Halaris
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • depression
  • biomarkers
  • inflammation
  • autoimmunity
  • genomics
  • physiology
  • radiography

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Published Papers (2 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 834 KB  
Article
Electroencephalogram Gamma Band Power Correlates with Anhedonia in a Community Sample
by Sarah L. Coleman, Ian D. Evans, Christopher F. Sharpley, Vicki Bitsika, G. Lorenzo Odierna and Kirstan A. Vessey
J. Pers. Med. 2025, 15(11), 536; https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm15110536 - 3 Nov 2025
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Abstract
Major depression (MD) is a condition characterised by persistent sadness and apathy, sometimes accompanied by changes in sleep, appetite, and energy levels. It is highly heterogeneous, and depressive subtypes exhibit differing symptom profiles and patterns of brain activity. Background/Objectives: Currently, there are [...] Read more.
Major depression (MD) is a condition characterised by persistent sadness and apathy, sometimes accompanied by changes in sleep, appetite, and energy levels. It is highly heterogeneous, and depressive subtypes exhibit differing symptom profiles and patterns of brain activity. Background/Objectives: Currently, there are no physiological diagnostic means to detect depression or depressive subtypes. An emerging biomarker may be the electroencephalogram (EEG) band, gamma, due to the role of this frequency in reward processing and cognition. The aim of this work was to complete an exploratory study to investigate the interaction between gamma band power, depression, and four depressive subtypes. Methods: A correlative study between resting-state gamma band power and individual scores on the Zung Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS) was completed using exact standardised low-resolution electromagnetic tomography (eLORETA) using EEG data from a community sample of 100 participants, including not depressed and depressed participants, and four depressive subtypes (anhedonia-, cognitive- and somatic-depression and depressed mood). Results: There was no significant positive correlation between gamma band power and overall depression score. However, there was a significant positive correlation between anhedonia and gamma band power, predominantly in the left anterior cingulate cortex, which may be consistent with dysfunctional reward processing, a characteristic of anhedonia. Additional areas of significance included the posterior cingulate cortex and left middle and superior frontal cortex. Conclusions: These results provide preliminary support for neurophysiological indicators of depressive subtypes and may help inform diagnosis and treatment guidance for depression and depressive subtypes in the future. Full article
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Review

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23 pages, 365 KB  
Review
Application of Treatment Response Biomarkers from Major Depression to Perinatal Depression
by Wan Kwok, Melissa Wagner-Schuman, Tory Eisenlohr-Moul and Brandon Hage
J. Pers. Med. 2025, 15(12), 607; https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm15120607 - 6 Dec 2025
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Abstract
Background/Objectives: Perinatal depression poses significant risks to maternal and fetal health, yet biomarkers for treatment response in the field remain limited. Given the overlap in symptoms with major depressive disorder (MDD) and the comparatively more vast MDD literature, identifying promising MDD biomarkers [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Perinatal depression poses significant risks to maternal and fetal health, yet biomarkers for treatment response in the field remain limited. Given the overlap in symptoms with major depressive disorder (MDD) and the comparatively more vast MDD literature, identifying promising MDD biomarkers for treatment response and examining corresponding perinatal depression biomarkers can reveal translational opportunities. Methods: PUBMED searches were conducted for individual biomarkers and MDD and perinatal depression, as well as with treatment response to antidepressant pharmacological treatment and neuromodulation treatments. When available, evidence from meta-analyses and systematic reviews were preferentially summarized. Review: This narrative review presents the current evidence on MDD and perinatal depression treatment response biomarkers, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), S100 calcium-binding protein B (S100B), electroencephalography, event-related potentials, metabolomics, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis hormones, neuroimaging markers, inflammatory markers, and neuroactive steroids. Conclusions: Biomarker research in MDD yields insights on promising biomarkers for treatment response, including BDNF, S100B, theta band density and cordance, inflammatory markers IL-8, CRP, and TNF- α, and neuroactive steroids. Full article
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