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Recent Advances in 3D Printing Technologies in Bioengineering with Selected Papers from the 29th Congress of the European Society of Biomechanics (ESB 2024)

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A special issue of Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing (ISSN 2504-4494).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2025) | Viewed by 18045

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Dr. Bin Zhang

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Brunel University London, London UB8 3PH, UK
Interests: additive manufacturing; biomedical materials; pharmaceutical and medical devices; tissue engineering; finite element analysis

Dr. Amirpasha Moetazedian

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Guest Editor

School of Engineering, University of Hull, Cottingham Rd, Kingston Upon Hull HU6 7RX, UK
Interests: additive manufacturing; microfluidics; tissue engineering; in vitro models; biomaterials

Prof. Dr. Peter Zioupos

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School of Engineering, University of Hull, Cottingham Rd, Kingston Upon Hull HU6 7RX, UK
Interests: biomedical engineering; human factors for defence
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue of the Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing includes a selection of papers on this very interesting topic of “Recent Advances in 3D Printing Technologies in Bioengineering” from scientists across the globe, as well as extended versions of selected papers presented at the 29th Congress of the European Society of Biomechanics (ESB 2024) taking place in Edinburgh, Scotland, from 30th June to 3rd July 2024 (https://esbiomech2024.org/), which brings together experts from industry and research from all over the world.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology, also known as additive manufacturing (AM), has emerged as an attractive state-of-the-art tool for precisely fabricating functional materials with complex geometries and has demonstrated tremendous potential in bioengineering. This Special Issue will focus on original research papers and review articles that deal with cutting-edge technologies in various 3D-printing methods, including future strategies for developing materials and 3D-printed devices.

Contributors from around the world can submit their manuscripts for consideration as normal.

Participants of ESB 2024 can approach/contact the three editors of this Special Issue who are handling the selection of high-quality works from the conference. These papers will be submitted as extended full versions of their original papers (50% expansion of the contents of the conference paper).

Suitable topics for this Special Issue include, but are not limited to, the following:

Three-dimensional printing of models, prototypes, and tools for surgical planning;
Three-dimensional-printed sensor-related medical devices;
Three-dimensional printing of pharmaceutical and drug delivery devices;
Various applications in the dentistry field using 3D printing;
Human tissue with 3D bioprinting and personalized tissue scaffolds using advanced biomaterials;
Development and optimization of 3D-printing processes, including 4D printing.

Dr. Bin Zhang
Dr. Amirpasha Moetazedian
Prof. Dr. Peter Zioupos
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

3D printing
additive manufacturing
prototypes
medical devices
3D bioprinting
advanced biomaterials
4D printing

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 2969 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spine Motion Segment Analogues: 3D Printing, Multiscale Modelling and Testing to Produce More Biofidelic Examples

by Constantinos Franceskides, Tobias Shanker, Michael C. Gibson and Peter Zioupos

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2026, 10(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp10020056 - 6 Feb 2026

Viewed by 562

Abstract

Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging are two powerful modalities which can be used in the clinical setting to produce data for the creation of patient-specific finite element analysis (FEA) models and physical analogues—for instance, by using additive manufacturing (AM)—that mimic the properties of soft and hard tissues, both morphologically and mechanically. However, there remains a gap between creating a perfect biofidelic physical analogue and its computational counterpart. This gap exists because, firstly, in silico models are often too complex to realise, and secondly, real-life conditions are challenging to emulate both computationally and mechanically, as they involve multiscale situations that are inherently heterogeneous and patient specific. In this study, we applied a multi-scale approach to design and model porcine vertebral specimens. Our results identified critical design factors that affect the quality and accuracy of the models, specifically highlighting that scanning resolution/fidelity and the thresholding technique have a directly proportional impact on model accuracy. A small shift up and down the greyscale level by 20 units can affect the behaviour of the AM sample by as much as [−15% +47%]. Working up the levels for manufacturing, testing and modelling (i) cylindrical cores to (ii) whole vertebrae and then (iii) a whole spine motion segment, we observed that the fidelity of predictions reduces, and errors increase as the structure becomes more complicated and intricate (3.6%, 7.5% and 15%, respectively). We are confident that further material-level developments will provide solutions for the more intricate parts of spinal motion segments, such as the intervertebral discs and facets, which in their natural form are highly sophisticated structures. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time a holistic multiscale approach has been implemented to produce AM biofidelic analogues of skeletal parts. Our data showed good agreement between the physical and in silico models, confirming that it is possible to model real-time objects and situations both physically and in silico. This ultimately will enable the development of accurate, patient-specific physical models for use in biomechanical testing and medicolegal applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in 3D Printing Technologies in Bioengineering with Selected Papers from the 29th Congress of the European Society of Biomechanics (ESB 2024))

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21 pages, 5844 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Material Characterisation of Additively Manufactured Polymer Scaffolds for Medical Devices

by Aidan Pereira, Amirpasha Moetazedian, Martin J. Taylor, Frances E. Longbottom, Heba Ghazal, Jie Han and Bin Zhang

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2026, 10(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp10010039 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 924

Abstract

Additive manufacturing has been adopted in several industries including the medical field to develop new personalised medical implants including tissue engineering scaffolds. Custom patient-specific scaffolds can be additively manufactured to speed up the wound healing process. The aim of this study was to design, fabricate, and evaluate a range of materials and scaffold architectures for 3D-printed wound dressings intended for soft tissue applications, such as skin repair. Multiple biocompatible polymers, including polylactic acid (PLA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), butenediol vinyl alcohol copolymer (BVOH), and polycaprolactone (PCL), were fabricated using a material extrusion additive manufacturing technique. Eight scaffolds, five with circular designs (knee meniscus angled (KMA), knee meniscus stacked (KMS), circle dense centre (CDC), circle dense edge (CDE), and circle no gradient (CNG)), and three square scaffolds (square dense centre (SDC), square dense edge (SDE), and square no gradient (SNG), with varying pore widths and gradient distributions) were designed using an open-source custom toolpath generator to enable precise control over scaffold architecture. An in vitro degradation study in phosphate-buffered saline demonstrated that PLA exhibited the greatest material stability, indicating minimal degradation under the tested conditions. In comparison, PVA showed improved performance relative to BVOH, as it was capable of absorbing a greater volume of exudate fluid and remained structurally intact for a longer duration, requiring up to 60 min to fully dissolve. Tensile testing of PLA scaffolds further revealed that designs with increased porosity towards the centre exhibited superior mechanical performance. The strongest scaffold design exhibited a Young’s modulus of 1060.67 ± 16.22 MPa and withstood a maximum tensile stress of 21.89 ± 0.81 MPa before fracture, while maintaining a porosity of approximately 52.37%. This demonstrates a favourable balance between mechanical strength and porosity that mimics key properties of engineered tissues such as the meniscus. Overall, these findings highlight the potential of 3D-printed, patient-specific scaffolds to enhance the effectiveness and customisation of tissue engineering treatments, such as meniscus repair, offering a promising approach for next-generation regenerative applications. Full article

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15 pages, 2945 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Mechanical Testing of Synthetic 3D-Printed Models of Healthy and Metastatic Vertebrae

by Daniela Bruno, Riccardo Forni, Marco Palanca, Luca Cristofolini and Paolo Gargiulo

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(11), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9110373 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1176

Abstract

Experimental characterisation of ex vivo specimens is limited by specimen availability and high costs, whereas 3D printing provides a cost-effective alternative for producing multiple replicas. This study aimed to develop a methodology for evaluating the individual and combined effects of material composition and geometry on the biomechanical performance of 3D-printed vertebrae. CT scans of healthy human vertebrae and with lytic metastases were segmented to fabricate synthetic models through Digital Anatomy Printing. Three types of 3D-printed models were produced: Healthy vertebrae, Metastatic vertebrae, and Healed vertebrae (metastatic geometry filled with healthy material). All models were tested under axial compression to measure the strength, stiffness, and strain. Repeatability across replicas was assessed as well as comparison of mechanical properties among the different vertebral types. Results showed excellent repeatability, with coefficients of variation below 5% for strength and stiffness-related parameters. The Metastatic models exhibited significant reductions in strength compared to Healthy ones, while stiffness remained similar, consistent with ex vivo data trends. Healed models highlighted the role of material composition in driving mechanical behaviour, independently of geometry. This work provides the first quantitative assessment of 3D-printed vertebrae with metastatic lesions, supporting their future potential as standardised alternatives to cadaveric testing. Full article

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21 pages, 7297 KB

Open AccessArticle

Additively Produced Ti-6Al-4V Osteosynthesis Devices Meet the Requirements for Tensile Strength and Fatigue

by Alisdair R. MacLeod, Matthew Bishop, Alberto Casonato Longo, Alborz Shokrani, Chris Rhys Bowen and Harinderjit Singh Gill

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(7), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9070227 - 3 Jul 2025

Viewed by 2315

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to estimate the peak stresses in a laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) additive-manufactured (AM) osteosynthesis plate during physiological loading and establish if the mechanical properties of LPBF titanium alloy were suitable for this use case. Finite element models of subject-specific osteosynthesis plates for a cohort of 28 patients were created and used to calculate the peak maximum principal stresses during physiological loading, which was estimated to be 166 MPa twelve weeks post-operatively. All specimens were LPBF additively manufactured in Ti-6Al-4V alloy. ISO compliant tests were performed for tensile and fatigue, respectively. Fatigue testing was performed for specimens that had been heat-treated only and those that had been heat-treated and polished. The Upper Yield Stress was 1012.5 ± 19.2 MPa. The fatigue limit was 227 MPa for heat-treated only specimens and increased to 286 MPa for heat-treated and polished specimens. The finite element predicted stresses were below the experimentally established limits of yield and fatigue. The tensile and fatigue properties of heat-treated LPBF Ti-6Al-4V are therefore sufficient to meet the mechanical requirements of osteosynthesis plates. Polishing is recommended to improve fatigue resistance. Full article

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32 pages, 6571 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Mechanical Properties of Bioprinted Multi-Layered Polyvinyl Alcohol Cryogel for Vascular Applications

by Argyro Panieraki, Nasim Mahmoodi, Carl Anthony, Rosemary J. Dyson and Lauren E. J. Thomas-Seale

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(6), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9060173 - 26 May 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2041

Abstract

Polyvinyl alcohol cryogels (PVA-C) are promising materials for vascular tissue engineering due to their biocompatibility, hydrophilicity, and tuneable mechanical properties. This study investigates the mechanical performance of multi-layered PVA-C constructs fabricated via sub-zero extrusion-based three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting. Samples with two, four, and six alternating layers were evaluated to assess the effect of layered architecture on elastic and viscoelastic behaviour. Uniaxial tensile testing revealed that increasing the number of layers led to a moderate reduction in stiffness; for instance, at 20% strain, six-layered constructs showed a significantly lower (p < 0.05) Young’s modulus (36.7 ± 2.5 kPa) compared to two-layered ones (47.3 ± 3.1 kPa). Stress–strain curves exhibited nonlinear characteristics, better captured by quadratic (as opposed to linear) fitting, within the tested strain range (≤40%). Dynamic mechanical analysis demonstrated a frequency-independent storage modulus (E′) across 1–10 Hz, with subtle variations in viscoelastic response linked to the number of layers. Visual inspection confirmed improved print fidelity and hydration retention in thicker constructs. These findings demonstrate that a multi-layered design influences the mechanical profile of PVA-C and suggests potential for functionally graded design strategies to enhance compliance matching and mimic the biomechanics of native vessels in small-diameter vascular grafts. Full article

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11 pages, 3317 KB

Open AccessArticle

Permea-Design: An Innovative Tool for Generating Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Scaffolds with Tailored Permeability

by Matthew Bedding-Tyrrell, Bjornar Sandnes, Perumal Nithiarasu and Feihu Zhao

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9030072 - 23 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1919

Abstract

The permeability of a porous material is the measure of the ability of fluids to pass through it. The ability to control permeability is valued by tissue engineers who manufacture tissue engineering scaffolds that house cells/tissue and facilitate tissue growth. Therefore, a scaffold design software in which permeability can be entered as a variable in determining the structure and strut topology would be a desirable tool for tissue engineering researchers. The ability to factor permeability directly into the design of scaffolds facilitates more effective bone tissue engineering by enabling optimal nutrient transport and waste removal at regeneration sites. Additionally, having the ability to control the mechanical environment by indicating a region of acceptable porosities for in vitro cell culturing is desirable. This desirability is a result of porosity being a major determining factor in permeability, where increasing porosity will generally mean a higher permeability. Thus, having an upper bound on porosity means that higher-permeability structures can be determined whilst maintaining high values of mechanical strength. In this software, a method is discussed for modifying the Kozeny–Carman equation by incorporating level-set equations for different triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) structures. Topology analysis is computed on six different TPMS structures in the toolbox, and a relationship between a topological constant and permeability is derived through the Kozeny–Carman equation. This relationship allows for an input of permeability as a factor in the determination of pore size, porosity, and scaffold structure. This novel method allows for scaffold design based on a tailored permeability to assist successful tissue engineering. Full article

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14 pages, 1654 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Geometry on the Dissolution Behaviour of Complex Additively Manufactured Tablets

by Seyedebrahim Afkhami, Meisam Abdi and Reza Baserinia

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9010011 - 3 Jan 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2582

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) processes, such as fused deposition modelling (FDM), have emerged as transformative technologies in pharmaceutical manufacturing, enabling the production of drug delivery systems with complex and customised geometries. These advancements provide precise control over drug release profiles and facilitate the development of patient-specific medicines. This study investigates the dissolution behaviour of AM-fabricated tablets made from polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), a hydrophilic and biocompatible polymer widely used in drug delivery systems. The influence of the initial mass, surface area, and surface-area-to-volume ratio (S/V) on dissolution kinetics is evaluated for tablets with intricate geometries. Our findings demonstrate that these parameters, while critical for conventional tablet shapes, are insufficient to fully predict the dissolution behaviour of complex geometries. Furthermore, this study highlights how geometric modifications can enable the administration of the same drug dosage through sustained or immediate release profiles, offering enhanced versatility in drug delivery. By leveraging the geometric design freedom provided by AM technologies, this research underscores the potential for optimising drug delivery systems to improve therapeutic outcomes and patient compliance. Full article

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20 pages, 21860 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geometric and Mechanical Properties of Ti6Al4V Skeletal Gyroid Structures Produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion for Biomedical Implants

by Cong Hou, Max Goris, Dries Rosseel, Bey Vrancken and Kathleen Denis

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(6), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8060256 - 13 Nov 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4300

Abstract

Skeletal gyroid structures possess promising applications in biomedical implants, owing to their smooth and continuously curved surfaces, open porosity, and customisable mechanical properties. This study simulated the geometric properties of Ti6Al4V skeletal gyroid structures, with relative densities ranging from 1.83% to 98.17%. The deformation behaviour of these structures was investigated through a combination of uniaxial compression tests and simulations, within a relative density range of 13.33% to 50% (simulation) and 15.19% to 41.69% (experimental tests). The results established explicit analytical correlations of pore size and strut diameter with the definition parameters of the structures, enabling precise control of these dimensions. Moreover, normalised Young’s modulus (ranging from 1.05% to 20.77% in simulations and 1.65% to 15.53% in tests) and normalised yield stress (ranging from 1.75% to 17.39% in simulations and 2.09% to 13.95% in tests) were found to be power correlated with relative density. These correlations facilitate the design of gyroid structures with low stiffness to mitigate the stress-shielding effect. The presence of macroscopic 45° fractures in the gyroid structures confirmed that the primary failure mechanism is induced by shear loads. The observed progressive failure and plateau region proved the bending-dominant behaviour and highlighted their excellent deformability. Additionally, the anisotropy of gyroid structures was confirmed through variations in stress and strain concentrations, deformation behaviour, and Young’s modulus under different loading directions. Full article

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Recent Advances in 3D Printing Technologies in Bioengineering with Selected Papers from the 29th Congress of the European Society of Biomechanics (ESB 2024)

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