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Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques
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Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques

A special issue of Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing (ISSN 2504-4494).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 19170

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ana Vafadar

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia
Interests: additive manufacturing; topology optimization; cost analysis for additive manufacturing; materials for additive manufacturing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Reza Hashemi

E-Mail Website
Co-Guest Editor
College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
Interests: mechanical behaviour of materials; additive manufacturing; tribology and tribocorrosion; biometals; materials testing and characterisation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, additive manufacturing (AM), commonly referred to as 3D printing, has experienced significant growth across various industrial sectors. This increase is attributed to AM technologies offering avenues for enhanced functionality, productivity, complex geometries, and competitiveness. With an expanding range of applications, industries have encountered challenges integrating these technologies while navigating dynamic market conditions. However, we believe that with your innovative research, these challenges can be overcome, and the potential of AM can be fully realized.

This Special Issue aims to distribute fundamental and applied research across several key areas to address these issues. By shedding light on recent advancements in AM technologies, materials, characterization and testing techniques, challenges and limitations, design considerations, cost analysis, and industrial applications, this Special Issue aims to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the opportunities presented by AM.

We encourage you to submit your research in the fields below to promote knowledge sharing and encourage progress in additive manufacturing. Submissions are welcomed that include, but are not limited to, the following research areas:

  • Material testing and characterization;
  • Defect analysis in additively manufactured products;
  • Topology and shape optimization;
  • Design for Additive Manufacturing (DfAM);
  • Industrial applications;
  • Macro additive manufacturing;
  • Micro additive manufacturing;
  • Additive manufacturing post-processing;
  • Additive manufacturing standardization;
  • Additively manufactured materials;
  • Cost modeling of additive manufacturing processes.

Contributions employing review, theoretical, numerical, or experimental approaches, separately or in combination, are encouraged to offer innovative solutions to applying additive manufacturing (AM).

Dr. Ana Vafadar
Dr. Reza Hashemi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • additive manufacturing processes
  • 3D printing
  • material mechanical properties
  • additive manufacturing post-processing
  • industrial applications
  • design optimization

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 17189 KiB  
Article
Parametric Study on Investigations of GMAW-Based WAAM Process Parameters and Effect on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of NiTi SMA
by Vatsal Vaghasia, Rakesh Chaudhari, Vivek K. Patel and Jay Vora
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020058 - 13 Feb 2025
Viewed by 802
Abstract
In the present study, an attempt was made to build a thin-walled structure consisting of 10 layers using nitinol wire on a titanium substrate via a gas–metal arc welding (GMAW)-based wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process. A thin-walled structure was fabricated by using nitinol [...] Read more.
In the present study, an attempt was made to build a thin-walled structure consisting of 10 layers using nitinol wire on a titanium substrate via a gas–metal arc welding (GMAW)-based wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process. A thin-walled structure was fabricated by using nitinol wire on a titanium substrate at the optimized parameters of a wire feed speed of 6 m/min, a travel speed of 12 mm/s, and a voltage of 20 V. In a microstructural study, the heat-affected zone was observed to have coarse grains and be columnar in shape, and the first layer exhibited a mix of dendritic structures. The mid-layers demonstrated a mix of coarse and fine columnar grains with dendritic colonies, while the last few layers demonstrated fairly equiaxed grains as well as a finer microstructure, as the cooling rates were very slow. The ultimate tensile strengths (UTSs) obtained at the bottom and top portions were found to be 536.22 MPa and 586.31 MPa. Elongation (EL) degrees of 10.72% and 11.57% were observed in the bottom and top portions, respectively. The fractography of the tensile specimen showed good toughness and ductility of the fabricated nitinol specimen. A microhardness examination showed a minimum value of 236.56 HV in the bottom layer and a maximum value of 316.78 HV in the topmost layer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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17 pages, 7657 KiB  
Article
Microstructure, Thermal, and Mechanical Behavior of NiTi Shape Memory Alloy Obtained by Micro Wire and Arc Direct Energy Deposition
by Tadeu C. da Silva, Edwin Sallica-Leva, Emilio Rayón, Claudio T. Santos, João C. A. D. Filho, Neri Volpato, Dalton D. Lima, Paulo H. G. Dornelas, Sergio S. M. Tavares and Telmo G. Santos
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020057 - 13 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1064
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) is revolutionizing the fabrication of metallic components, offering significant potential to compete with or complement traditional casting, forging, and machining processes, and enabling the production of complex functional components. Recent advancements in AM technology have facilitated the processing of shape [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing (AM) is revolutionizing the fabrication of metallic components, offering significant potential to compete with or complement traditional casting, forging, and machining processes, and enabling the production of complex functional components. Recent advancements in AM technology have facilitated the processing of shape memory alloys (SMAs) with functional properties comparable to those of conventionally processed alloys. However, the AM of NiTi SMAs remains underexplored due to the extreme complexity of the process, high melting point, and reactivity with oxygen. This study investigates the impact of AM processing on the shape memory properties of NiTi alloys using the Micro Wire and Arc Directed Energy Deposition (μ-WA-DED) technique in short circuit mode with a pioneering 0.3 mm pre-alloyed wire, focusing on increasing precision and control in the deposition process. The macroscopic morphology, microstructure, phase composition, phase-transformation temperatures, and mechanical properties of each deposited layer were analyzed. Results indicated austenite (B2) as the predominant phase, with retained martensite (B19′) and a reversible martensitic transformation (B2 ⇌ B19′) in the second layer. Mechanical characterization revealed variations in hardness (H) and elastic modulus (E) due to microstructural heterogeneity and composition. The first layer exhibited H = 3.8 GPa and E = 70 GPa, associated with the B2-NiTi phase, while higher values were obtained in the second layer, i.e., E = 100 GPa and H = 7 GPa. This study establishes for the first time the feasibility of NiTi alloy deposition with a 0.3 mm wire, setting a new standard for future research and applications in AM using μ-WA-DED. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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17 pages, 42128 KiB  
Article
Adaptation of Conventional Toolpath-Generation Software for Use in Curved-Layer Fused Deposition Modeling
by Samuel Maissen, Severin Zürcher and Michael Wüthrich
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(6), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8060270 - 28 Nov 2024
Viewed by 3043
Abstract
In 3D printing, the layered structure often results in artifacts. This effect becomes stronger for surfaces with a lower ramp angle. This effect can be mitigated by manufacturing parts with non-planar layers that fit the parts’ surface geometry. Using the open-source slicing software [...] Read more.
In 3D printing, the layered structure often results in artifacts. This effect becomes stronger for surfaces with a lower ramp angle. This effect can be mitigated by manufacturing parts with non-planar layers that fit the parts’ surface geometry. Using the open-source slicing software PrusaSlicer. an algorithm was developed to modify the slicer’s input and output data in a way that fits parts with low ramp angle surfaces. To achieve consistent part quality, all layers were modified to be printed in a non-planar way. The test results indicate that the proposed methods can significantly reduce surface roughness. Although the algorithm works well for parts with a flat base and vertical walls, it would need to be highly adapted to work for different part geometries. Additionally, compared to other algorithms used in Curved-Layer Fused Deposition Modeling (CLFDM), the changed layer structure introduces a changed visual appearance of parts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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20 pages, 8785 KiB  
Article
Effect of Powder Recycling on the Surface and Selected Technological Properties of M300 Maraging Steel Produced via the SLM Method
by Abdesselam Mechali, Josef Hlinka, Michal Kresta, Marin Petrovic, Jakub Mesicek, Ibrahim Jahan, Jiri Hajnys and Jana Petru
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(6), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8060267 - 27 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1205
Abstract
This study delves into selective laser melting (SLM). By using M300 steel in virgin and recycled powder form (after 20 cycles), with the aim of reducing the cost of printing for the practical application of M300 maraging steel, a comprehensive comparison between the [...] Read more.
This study delves into selective laser melting (SLM). By using M300 steel in virgin and recycled powder form (after 20 cycles), with the aim of reducing the cost of printing for the practical application of M300 maraging steel, a comprehensive comparison between the two types of powder was evaluated. The powder’s morphology was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and backscattered electrons (BSE). The particles were seen to have a spherical shape, with a notable number of satellites attached to their surfaces. The particle size distribution (PSD) was examined and ranged from 10 to 90 µm for both powders. In addition, the porosity exhibited an average value of 0.07% for the virgin powder and 0.10% for the recycled powder. The microstructure was examined. Additionally, the surface wettability was tested, and it was seen to display wetting behavior for both types of powder, while blackened surfaces showed a higher wetting angle than untreated surfaces (hydrophobic). The 2D roughness measurements showed that the recycled powder had no significant difference from the virgin powder (Ra = 5.33 µm, Rz = 24.17 µm) before blackening and (Ra = 5.48 µm, Rz = 24.07 µm) after blackening. Corrosion tests proved that the recycled powder did not affect the corrosion properties of the material, while blackening caused partial surface corrosion in both types of samples, regardless of the used powder. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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14 pages, 4754 KiB  
Article
Optimizing the Material Extrusion Process for Investment Casting Mould Production
by Pablo Rodríguez-González, Pablo Zapico, Sofía Peláez-Peláez, María Ángeles Castro-Sastre and Ana Isabel Fernández-Abia
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(6), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8060265 - 23 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1158
Abstract
This study investigates the optimization of the Material Extrusion (MEX) process for producing polylactic acid (PLA) patterns used in investment casting moulds, specifically targeting the casting of non-ferrous alloys such as brass. Key MEX process parameters—layer thickness, wall thickness, infill density, and post-processing [...] Read more.
This study investigates the optimization of the Material Extrusion (MEX) process for producing polylactic acid (PLA) patterns used in investment casting moulds, specifically targeting the casting of non-ferrous alloys such as brass. Key MEX process parameters—layer thickness, wall thickness, infill density, and post-processing with dichloromethane vapour for surface enhancement—were systematically analyzed for their impact on mould quality. Results indicate that an optimized combination of MEX parameters yields moulds with high dimensional accuracy, low surface roughness, and minimal pattern residue within the mould cavity. These optimized moulds were subsequently used in brass casting, with the final cast parts evaluated for dimensional precision and surface finish. The study concludes that PLA patterns manufactured via optimized MEX parameters provide a precise, cost-effective, and easy-to-implement solution for industry applications. Additionally, this process is environmentally friendly and presents clear advantages over other pattern-making methods, offering a sustainable alternative for producing complex metal parts with reduced environmental impact. The findings underscore the significant role of post-processing in enhancing mould quality and, consequently, the quality of the cast parts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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14 pages, 13014 KiB  
Article
A Design Strategy for Surface Modification and Decarburization to Achieve Enhanced Mechanical Properties in Additively Manufactured Stainless Steel
by Soumya Sridar, Noah Sargent, Stephanie Prochaska, Mitra Shabani, Owen Hildreth and Wei Xiong
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(6), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8060264 - 20 Nov 2024
Viewed by 876
Abstract
Post-processing of additively manufactured components, including the removal of support structures and the reduction in surface roughness, presents significant challenges. Conventional milling struggles to access internal cavities, while the Self-Terminating Etching Process (STEP) offers a promising solution. STEP effectively smooths surfaces and dissolves [...] Read more.
Post-processing of additively manufactured components, including the removal of support structures and the reduction in surface roughness, presents significant challenges. Conventional milling struggles to access internal cavities, while the Self-Terminating Etching Process (STEP) offers a promising solution. STEP effectively smooths surfaces and dissolves supports without substantial changes in geometry. However, it can lead to compositional changes and precipitation, affecting the material properties and necessitating a design strategy to mitigate them. In this study, STEP is applied to stainless steel 316L (SS316L) produced via laser powder bed fusion, reducing surface roughness from 7 to 2 μm. After STEP, the surface carbon exhibited a threefold increase, leading to the formation of M23C6 clusters. This significantly impacted the yield strength, resulting in a 37% reduction compared to the as-built condition. The key to overcoming this challenge was using computational simulations, which guided the determination of the decarburization conditions: 1000 °C for 60 min, ensuring maximum M23C6 dissolution and surface carbon reduction with minimal grain coarsening. Following these conditions, the yield strength of SS316L was restored to the level observed in the as-built condition. These findings underscore the potential of the proposed design strategy to enhance the mechanical performance of additively manufactured components significantly. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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14 pages, 6786 KiB  
Article
Synchronized Multi-Laser Powder Bed Fusion (M-LPBF) Additive Manufacturing: A Technique for Controlling the Microstructure of Ti–6Al–4V
by Hamed Attariani, Shayna Renay Petitjean and Aaron Michael Niekamp
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(6), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8060242 - 31 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1659
Abstract
One of the technological hurdles in the widespread application of additive manufacturing is the formation of undesired microstructure and defects, e.g., the formation of columnar grains in Ti-6Al-4V—the columnar microstructure results in anisotropic mechanical properties, a reduction in ductility, and a decrease in [...] Read more.
One of the technological hurdles in the widespread application of additive manufacturing is the formation of undesired microstructure and defects, e.g., the formation of columnar grains in Ti-6Al-4V—the columnar microstructure results in anisotropic mechanical properties, a reduction in ductility, and a decrease in the endurance limit. Here, we present the potential implementation of a hexagonal array of synchronized lasers to alter the microstructure of Ti–6Al–4V toward the formation of preferable equiaxed grains. An anisotropic heat transfer model is employed to obtain the temporal/spatial temperature distributions and construct the solidification map for various process parameters, i.e., laser power, scanning speed, and the internal distance among lasers in the array. Approximately 55% of the volume fraction of equiaxed grains is obtained using a laser power of P = 500 W and a scanning speed of v = 100 mm/s. The volume fraction of the equiaxed grains decreases with increasing scanning velocity; it drops to 38% for v = 1000 mm/s. This reduction is attributed to the decrease in absorbed heat and thermal crosstalk among lasers, i.e., the absorbed heat is higher at low scanning speeds, promoting thermal crosstalk between melt pools and subsequently forming a large volume fraction of equiaxed grains. Additionally, a degree of overlap between lasers in the array is required for high scanning speeds (v = 1000 mm/s) to form a coherent melt pool, although this is unnecessary for low scanning speeds (v = 100 mm/s). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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15 pages, 6728 KiB  
Article
Flexural Analysis of Additively Manufactured Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Honeycomb Sandwich Structures
by Rafael Guerra Silva, Esteban Gonzalez, Andres Inostroza and Gustavo Morales Pavez
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(5), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8050226 - 10 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1529
Abstract
This study explores the flexural behavior of continuous fiber-reinforced composite sandwich structures built entirely using material extrusion additive manufacturing. The continuous fiber additive manufacturing system used in this study works sequentially, thus enabling the addition of fiber reinforcement just in the face sheets, [...] Read more.
This study explores the flexural behavior of continuous fiber-reinforced composite sandwich structures built entirely using material extrusion additive manufacturing. The continuous fiber additive manufacturing system used in this study works sequentially, thus enabling the addition of fiber reinforcement just in the face sheets, where it is most effective. Three-point bending tests were carried out on sandwich panel specimens built using thermoplastic reinforced with continuous glass fiber to quantify the effect of fiber reinforcement and infill density in the flexural properties and failure mode. Sandwich structures containing continuous fiber reinforcement had higher flexural strength and rigidity than unreinforced sandwiches. On the other hand, an increase in the lattice core density did not improve the flexural strength and rigidity. The elastic modulus of fiber-reinforced 3D-printed sandwich panels exceeded the predictions of the analytical models; the equivalent homogeneous model had the best performance, with a 15% relative error. However, analytical models could not correctly predict the failure mode: wrinkle failure occurs at 75% and 30% of the critical load in fiber-reinforced sandwiches with low- and high-density cores, respectively. Furthermore, no model is currently available to predict interlayer debonding between the matrix and the thermoplastic coating of fiber layers. Divergences between analytical models and experimental results could be attributed to the simplifications in the models that do not consider defects inherent to additive manufacturing, such as air gaps and poor interlaminar bonding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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20 pages, 11988 KiB  
Article
Additive Friction Stir Deposition of a Tantalum–Tungsten Refractory Alloy
by R. Joey Griffiths, Alexander E. Wilson-Heid, Marissa A. Linne, Eleanna V. Garza, Arnold Wright and Aiden A. Martin
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(4), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8040177 - 14 Aug 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1983
Abstract
Additive friction stir deposition (AFSD) is a solid-state metal additive manufacturing technique, which utilizes frictional heating and plastic deformation to create large deposits and parts. Much like its cousin processes, friction stir welding and friction stir processing, AFSD has seen the most compatibility [...] Read more.
Additive friction stir deposition (AFSD) is a solid-state metal additive manufacturing technique, which utilizes frictional heating and plastic deformation to create large deposits and parts. Much like its cousin processes, friction stir welding and friction stir processing, AFSD has seen the most compatibility and use with lower-temperature metals, such as aluminum; however, there is growing interest in higher-temperature materials, such as titanium and steel alloys. In this work, we explore the deposition of an ultrahigh-temperature refractory material, specifically, a tantalum–tungsten (TaW) alloy. The solid-state nature of AFSD means refractory process temperatures are significantly lower than those for melt-based additive manufacturing techniques; however, they still pose difficult challenges, especially in regards to AFSD tooling. In this study, we perform initial deposition trials of TaW using twin-rod-style AFSD with a high-temperature tungsten–rhenium-based tool. Many challenges arise because of the high temperatures of the process and high mechanical demand on AFSD machine hardware to process the strong refractory alloy. Despite these challenges, successful deposits of the material were produced and characterized. Mechanical testing of the deposited material shows improved yield strength over that of the annealed reference material, and this strengthening is mostly attributed to the refined recrystallized microstructure typical of AFSD. These findings highlight the opportunities and challenges associated with ultrahigh-temperature AFSD, as well as provide some of the first published insights into twin-rod-style AFSD process behaviors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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20 pages, 6397 KiB  
Article
Shape Memory Polymers in 4D Printing: Investigating Multi-Material Lattice Structures
by David Pokras, Yanika Schneider, Sohail Zaidi and Vimal K. Viswanathan
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(4), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8040154 - 22 Jul 2024
Viewed by 2522
Abstract
This paper evaluates the design and fabrication of a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) shape memory polymer (SMP) using fused deposition modeling (FDM). The commercially available SMP filament was used to create parts capable of changing their shape following the application of an external heat [...] Read more.
This paper evaluates the design and fabrication of a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) shape memory polymer (SMP) using fused deposition modeling (FDM). The commercially available SMP filament was used to create parts capable of changing their shape following the application of an external heat stimulus. The characterization of thermal and viscoelastic properties of the SMP TPU revealed a proportional change in shape fixity and recovery with respect to heating and cooling rates, as well as a decreasing softening temperature with increasing shape memory history due to changes in the polymer microstructure. Inspired by the advancements in 3D and 4D printing, we investigated the feasibility of creating multi-material lattice structures using SMP and another thermoplastic with poor adhesion to TPU. A variety of interlocking lattice structures were evaluated by combining SMP with another thermoplastic that have poor adhesion with TPU. The tensile strength and failure modes of the fabricated multi-material parts were compared against homogenous SMP TPU specimens. It was found that the lattice interface failed first at approximately 41% of the ultimate strength of the homogenous part on average. The maximum recorded ultimate strength of the multi-material specimens reached 62% of SMP TPU’s ultimate strength. These characterizations can make 4D printing technology more accessible to common users and make it available for new markets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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14 pages, 3344 KiB  
Article
Effect of Scanning Strategy on the Microstructure and Load-Bearing Characteristics of Additive Manufactured Parts
by S. Silva Sajin Jose, Santosh Kr. Mishra and Ram Krishna Upadhyay
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8(4), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8040146 - 5 Jul 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1877
Abstract
Additive manufacturing has witnessed significant growth in recent years, revolutionizing the automotive and aerospace industries amongst others. Despite the use of additive manufacturing for creating complex geometries and reducing material consumption, there is a critical need to enhance the mechanical properties of manufactured [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing has witnessed significant growth in recent years, revolutionizing the automotive and aerospace industries amongst others. Despite the use of additive manufacturing for creating complex geometries and reducing material consumption, there is a critical need to enhance the mechanical properties of manufactured parts to broaden their industrial applications. In this work, AISI 316L stainless steel is used to fabricate parts using three different strategies of the additively manufactured Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) technique, i.e., continuous, alternate, and island. This study aims to identify methods to optimize grain orientation and compaction support provided to the material under load, which influence the frictional and wear properties of the manufactured parts. The load-bearing capacity is evaluated by measuring the frictional and wear properties. The wear patch track is also examined to establish the physical mechanisms at the surface interface that lead to the smooth transition in response to the load. Grain orientation is compared across different strategies using Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) maps, and the influence of surface roughness on sliding behavior is also evaluated. The results demonstrate that the island scanning strategy yields the best performance for load-bearing applications, exhibiting superior grain orientation and hardness in the additively manufactured parts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Material Characterization Techniques)
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