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Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies—2nd Edition
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Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies—2nd Edition

A special issue of Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (ISSN 2411-5142). This special issue belongs to the section "Kinesiology and Biomechanics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2026 | Viewed by 6398

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Vasiliki Sakellari

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Guest Editor
Physiotherapy Department, School of Health and Care Sciences, University of West Attica, Agiou Spidonos 28, 2243 Athens, Greece
Interests: physiotherapy; human balance; gait analysis; neurological rehabilitation; ergonomics; fall prevention; motor control; geriatrics; sensorimotor integration; clinical education in physiotherapy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. George Gioftsos

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Physiotherapy Department, School of Health and Care Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Aigaleo, Greece
Interests: physiotherapy; rehabilitation; gait analysis; biomechanics; musculoskeletal disorders; kinesiology; human movement science; exercise science; motion analysis; injury biomechanics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Following the success of our first edition, we are delighted to launch the 2nd Edition of Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies. The elements highlighted constitute core components of human movement, essential for maintaining mobility, independence, and quality of life. Their impairment—whether due to ageing, neurological conditions, or injury—they can have a profound impact on daily functioning and well-being.

Recent progress in assessment methods and rehabilitation approaches offers promising pathways to better understand, monitor, and enhance these functions. In this edition, we aim to gather a rich collection of original research, reviews, and case studies that present innovative solutions and interdisciplinary perspectives.

We are particularly keen to publish research contributions on

  • Novel tools and technologies for posture, balance, and gait assessment;
  • Mechanisms of postural control and balance;
  • Rehabilitation strategies for neurological and musculoskeletal conditions;
  • Fall prevention programs and ergonomic interventions;
  • Integration of wearable devices, virtual reality, and other technologies in rehabilitation.

Our goal is to provide an international platform for advancing clinical practice, encouraging interdisciplinary dialogue, and fostering innovation in this important area of healthcare. We look forward to your contributions and to building on the momentum created by the first edition.

Best regards,

Prof. Dr. Vasiliki Sakellari
Prof. Dr. George Gioftsos
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • physiotherapy
  • human balance
  • gait analysis
  • neurological rehabilitation
  • ergonomics
  • fall prevention
  • sensorimotor integration
  • motor control
  • geriatrics
  • clinical education

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 321 KB  
Article
Association Between Upper Extremity Function and Independence in Activities of Daily Living in Individuals with Motor-Incomplete Tetraplegia: An Exploratory Cross-Sectional Study
by Eleanna Strongylou, Dimitra Karadimitri, Maria Moutzouri, Magdalini Stamou, Christina-Anastasia Rapidi, Yannis Dionyssiotis, Eleni Moumtzi-Nakka and Vasiliki Sakellari
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(1), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11010119 - 16 Mar 2026
Viewed by 714
Abstract
Background: Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a leading cause of chronic disability. Loss of upper extremity (U.E.) function is central to limitations, in mobility, postural control, transfers, and self-care. The aim of this exploratory pilot study was to investigate whether self-reported UE function [...] Read more.
Background: Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a leading cause of chronic disability. Loss of upper extremity (U.E.) function is central to limitations, in mobility, postural control, transfers, and self-care. The aim of this exploratory pilot study was to investigate whether self-reported UE function is associated with independence in activities of daily living (ADLs) in people with motor-incomplete tetraplegia. Methods: Eleven (n = 11) individuals with motor-incomplete tetraplegia (AIS C–D; neurological levels C4–T1; injury duration ≥ 1 year), recruited through convenience sampling from five specialist rehabilitation centres, participated in an exploratory cross-sectional pilot study designed to generate hypotheses rather than test them. U.E. function was assessed using the Patient-Rated Tennis Elbow Evaluation (PRTEE) questionnaire, selected for its ability to capture pain and task-related functional difficulty in the elbow, wrist, and hand; its application in this neurological population is considered exploratory. Independence in ADLs was evaluated using the Spinal Cord Independence Measure III (SCIM III). Given the small sample, all analyses were primarily descriptive and along with bivariate associations (Spearman correlations). Regression findings are reported strictly for exploratory purposes. Results: The median age was 50 years (interquartile range [IQR] 43–55). A strong negative correlation was observed between PRTEE total score and SCIM III (rs = −0.76). In an exploratory univariate analysis, each 1-point increase in PRTEE total score was associated with a 1.3-point lower SCIM III score (β = −1.3, 95% CI −2.34 to −0.26, p = 0.02). Age also showed a positive association (β = 1.31, 95% CI 0.04 to 2.58, p = 0.05) with SCIM III; however, this finding is highly likely to reflect a statistical artefact of the small and unrepresentative sample. Multivariable regression was not conducted as a primary analysis due to insufficient statistical power. All findings should be treated as strictly exploratory and hypothesis-generating. Conclusions: Self-reported U.E. function appears to be associated with ADL independence in motor-incomplete tetraplegia. U.E. capacity may contribute to functional tasks requiring postural stability and mobility-related activities, but no predictive inferences can be made from this underpowered, convenience sample. Future studies with larger cohorts and performance-based measures are needed to confirm these preliminary observations and clarify the role of U.E. function in rehabilitation planning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies—2nd Edition)
12 pages, 696 KB  
Article
Nonlinear Gait Variability and the Role of Cognitive-Physical Exercise in Mitigating Mobility Decline in Institutionalized Older Adults with Cognitive Impairment
by João Galrinho, Marco Batista, Marta Gonçalves-Montera, Ana Rita Matias and Orlando Fernandes
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(1), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11010097 - 26 Feb 2026
Viewed by 744
Abstract
Background: Age-related cognitive decline is linked to reduced gait complexity and higher fall risk. Traditional linear gait measures may miss subtle motor-cognitive deficits in older adults with dementia. This study examined whether an 8-week motor-cognitive exercise program could improve gait adaptability in institutionalized [...] Read more.
Background: Age-related cognitive decline is linked to reduced gait complexity and higher fall risk. Traditional linear gait measures may miss subtle motor-cognitive deficits in older adults with dementia. This study examined whether an 8-week motor-cognitive exercise program could improve gait adaptability in institutionalized older adults with cognitive impairment. Gait complexity, measured using Sample Entropy, was the primary outcome. Methods: Forty-two institutionalized older adults completed follow-up assessments, including 26 with cognitive impairment and 16 controls. Gait was assessed during normal walking (single-task) and while performing cognitive tasks (dual-task), such as naming animals or counting backward. Inertial sensors recorded stride intervals, and Sample Entropy was calculated to evaluate gait regularity and adaptability, (gait complexity). The intervention included 24 structured sessions combining physical and cognitive exercises targeting balance, coordination, and executive function. Non-parametric tests (Wilcoxon) were used, with Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. Results: Participants with cognitive impairment showed increased gait complexity, especially during dual-task walking. Significant improvements were found in both limbs under dual-task conditions (left: p = 0.015, effect size = 0.34; right: p = 0.030, effect size = 0.31). During single-task walking, a significant improvement was observed in the left limb (p = 0.006, effect size = 0.39). Conclusions: Motor-cognitive exercise may enhance non-linear gait complexity in institutionalized older adults with cognitive impairment. The use of dual-task training in rehabilitation and highlight the value of entropy-based gait assessment for detecting subtle functional changes. However, the lack of a randomized non-exercising cognitive impairment control group limits definitive conclusions about causality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies—2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 1129 KB  
Article
Kinematic and Kinetic Adaptations to Step Cadence Modulation During Walking in Healthy Adults
by Joan Lluch Fruns, Maria Cristina Manzanares-Céspedes, Laura Pérez-Palma and Carles Vergés Salas
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11010053 - 26 Jan 2026
Viewed by 543
Abstract
Background: Walking cadence is commonly adjusted in sport and rehabilitation, yet its effects on spatiotemporal gait parameters and regional plantar pressure distribution under controlled speed conditions remain incompletely characterized. Therefore, this study aimed to determine whether imposed cadence increases at a constant walking [...] Read more.
Background: Walking cadence is commonly adjusted in sport and rehabilitation, yet its effects on spatiotemporal gait parameters and regional plantar pressure distribution under controlled speed conditions remain incompletely characterized. Therefore, this study aimed to determine whether imposed cadence increases at a constant walking speed would (i) systematically reduce temporal gait parameters while preserving inter-limb symmetry and (ii) be associated with region-specific increases in forefoot plantar loading, representing the primary novel contribution of this work. Methods: Fifty-two adults walked at three imposed cadences (110, 120, 130 steps·min−1) while maintaining a fixed treadmill speed of 1.39 m·s−1 via auditory biofeedback. Spatiotemporal parameters were recorded with an OptoGait system, and plantar pressure distribution was measured using in-shoe pressure insoles. Normally distributed variables were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA, whereas plantar pressure metrics were assessed using the Friedman test, followed by Wilcoxon signed-rank post-hoc comparisons with false discovery rate (FDR) correction. Associations between temporal parameters and plantar loading metrics (peak pressure, pressure–time integral) were examined using Spearman’s rank correlation with FDR correction (α = 0.05). Results: Increasing cadence produced progressive reductions in gait cycle duration (~8–10%), contact time (~7–8%), and step time (all p < 0.01), while inter-limb symmetry indices remained below 2% across conditions. Peak plantar pressure increased significantly in several forefoot regions with increasing cadence (all p_FDR < 0.05), whereas changes in the first ray were less consistent across conditions. Regional forefoot pressure–time integral also increased modestly with higher cadence (p_FDR < 0.01). Spearman’s correlations revealed moderate negative associations between temporal gait parameters and global plantar loading metrics (ρ = −0.38 to −0.46, all p_FDR < 0.05). Conclusions: At a constant walking speed, increasing cadence systematically shortens temporal gait components and is associated with small but consistent region-specific increases in forefoot plantar loading. These findings highlight cadence as a key temporal constraint shaping plantar loading patterns during steady-state walking and support the existence of concurrent temporal–mechanical adaptations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies—2nd Edition)
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13 pages, 518 KB  
Article
Test–Retest Reliability of Balance Parameters Obtained with a Force Platform in Individuals with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
by Igor Lopes de Brito, Walter Sepúlveda-Loyola, Larissa Araújo de Castro, Leidy Tatiana Ordoñez-Mora, Ademilson Julio da Silva Junior and Vanessa S. Probst
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11010024 - 1 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 724
Abstract
Background: Impaired postural balance is a common feature in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), increasing their risk of falls. This study aimed to evaluate the test–retest reliability of force platform parameters used to assess postural balance in individuals with COPD. [...] Read more.
Background: Impaired postural balance is a common feature in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), increasing their risk of falls. This study aimed to evaluate the test–retest reliability of force platform parameters used to assess postural balance in individuals with COPD. Methods: A test–retest reliability study was conducted with participants diagnosed with moderate to severe COPD. Each participant completed two standardized balance assessments on a force platform, separated by a seven-day interval. Center of pressure (COP) parameters—including sway area, mean velocity, and path length—were analyzed under eyes-open and eyes-closed conditions. Reliability was determined using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), standard error of measurement (SEM), and coefficient of variation (CV). Correlations were performed between force platform parameters, the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test, and the Downton Fall Risk Scale. Results: Twenty individuals with COPD (mean age: 67.8 ± 6.1 years; forced expiratory value in the first second: 54 ± 12% predicted) were evaluated. The COP parameters demonstrated good to excellent test–retest reliability (ICC = 0.82–0.95) across all conditions, with low measurement error (SEM < 10%). Moderate correlations were found between force platform parameters and both TUG performance (r = 0.52–0.67) and Downton scores (r = 0.48–0.61). Conclusions: Force platform measurements show high reliability for assessing postural balance in individuals with COPD. These findings support the use of objective balance assessment tools in pulmonary rehabilitation and for monitoring fall risk in this population. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies—2nd Edition)
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10 pages, 545 KB  
Article
Short-Term Foot and Postural Adaptations During an Industrial Workday: A Workplace-Based Biomechanical Assessment
by Alejandro Jesús Almenar-Arasanz, Javier Alfaro-Santafé, Antonio Gómez-Bernal, Jose Luis Perez-Lasierra, Belén Lacárcel-Tejero, José Antonio Villalba-Ruete, Cristina Cimarras-Otal, Juan Rabal-Pelay and Ana Vanessa Bataller-Cervero
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040476 - 9 Dec 2025
Viewed by 804
Abstract
Background: Prolonged standing is common in industrial environments and may induce functional adaptations in the foot and postural system. This study aimed to evaluate short-term changes in foot posture and plantar pressure distribution after a working day in assembly line workers. Methods: Forty [...] Read more.
Background: Prolonged standing is common in industrial environments and may induce functional adaptations in the foot and postural system. This study aimed to evaluate short-term changes in foot posture and plantar pressure distribution after a working day in assembly line workers. Methods: Forty participants (31 males, 9 females; mean age 44 ± 7 years; BMI 26.1 ± 3.6 kg/m2) performed standing tasks during an 8 h shift. Static baropodometric measurements and 3D foot scans were obtained before and after the workday to assess plantar pressure, contact area, and arch height. The Spanish versions of the Cornell Musculoskeletal Discomfort Questionnaire (CMDQ) and the Foot Function Index (FFI) were used to evaluate discomfort and functional status. Paired t-tests were applied, and correlations were analyzed (p < 0.05). Results: Left-foot arch height decreased significantly after the workday (mean change = 0.6 mm; p = 0.027). Both mean and peak plantar pressures declined (p < 0.001), along with moderate reductions in contact area (p ≤ 0.05). The center of pressure shifted mediolaterally, and discomfort was most frequent in the lower back, knees, and feet. A positive correlation was found between arch height reduction and FFI score (r = 0.349; p = 0.028). Conclusions: Prolonged standing was associated with measurable adaptations in foot posture and plantar pressure, possibly indicating short-term fatigue or compensatory postural adjustments. These results emphasize the importance of assessing plantar load and foot morphology as indicators of potential functional responses to sustained standing and as possible targets for ergonomic and rehabilitation strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies—2nd Edition)
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