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Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf

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A special issue of Corrosion and Materials Degradation (ISSN 2624-5558).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 September 2025) | Viewed by 7801

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. David M. Bastidas

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1. National Center for Education and Research on Corrosion and Materials Performance, NCERCAMP-UA, The University of Akron, 302 E Buchtel Ave, Akron, OH 44325, USA
2. ROSEN USA, 14120 Interdrive East, Houston, TX 77032, USA
Interests: corrosion; biomaterials; APS; bio-coatings; electrochemical; failure analysis
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Prof. Dr. Raman Singh

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Departments of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering and Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
Interests: materials degradation; corrosion; degradation of polymer and composites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue is gathering scientific contributions on the broader topic of atmospheric corrosion mechanisms and surface electrochemistry applied to the environmental degradation of materials.

A wide range of fundamental and applied research contributions are welcome, dealing with experimental, theoretical and modeling approaches that encompass atmospheric corrosion and electrode surface phenomena including the following: the development of surface sensitive techniques, surface physics, electrode–electrolyte interfaces, microbiologically induced corrosion, industrial ecology and sustainability, environmentally assisted cracking, localized corrosion, crevice corrosion, corrosion inhibitors, adsorption isotherms, patina and passive films, as well as the electrochemistry of materials and catalytic reactions.

In addition, special consideration will be devoted to first-principles studies and the computational modeling of interfacial and electrode surface processes, particularly those focusing on advanced electrochemical surface characterization techniques, such as localized electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (LEIS), scanning Kelvin probe force microscopy (SKPFM), scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET), atomic emission spectroelectrochemistry (AESEC), secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), surface vibrational spectroscopy (IRAS, SERS, SFG), and low energy electron diffraction (LEED), among others.

We invite communications on the broader area of corrosion and surface science in the fields of energy and renewables, infrastructure, aerospace, biomedical, heritage science, ecology, sustainability, and environmental sciences.

In this regard, this Special Issue in Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf is devoted to communications including fundamental and applied research studies on corrosion and surface science that contribute to advancing knowledge on atmospheric corrosion mechanisms and surface electrochemistry applied to the environmental degradation of materials.

Prof. Christofer Leygraf has made life-long contributions to the field of corrosion science, advancing both fundamental and applied research. Over nearly 35 years as Professor of Corrosion Science at KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden, he has pioneered a more molecular-level understanding of atmospheric corrosion. This was achieved through a combination of controlled laboratory and field studies conducted in diverse environments, computational modeling of key corrosion processes, and the application of cutting-edge in situ surface-sensitive analytical techniques. His efforts have been strengthened by cross-disciplinary collaborations among scientists in physics, chemistry, materials science, and environmental science, culminating in the second edition of the widely cited book Atmospheric Corrosion (Wiley, 2016), which has been cited in over one hundred countries.

Throughout his career, Leygraf has been a dedicated mentor, supervising or co-supervising approximately 50 PhD students. Among them, three—Inger Odnevall, Magnus Johnson, and Saman Hosseinpour—have received the prestigious Morris Cohen Award from the Electrochemical Society for outstanding graduate research in corrosion science. He has also established and led a prominent research group at KTH, known for its excellence in addressing a broad spectrum of corrosion-related and cross-disciplinary challenges.

Leygraf’s scholarly impact is reflected in his extensive body of work, with over 360 peer-reviewed publications. His research has been cited approximately 18,000 times, achieving an H-index of 74 as of November 2024. His book Atmospheric Corrosion has further solidified his reputation as a thought leader in the field. Leygraf is also an elected member of the Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences and has initiated numerous collaborative projects with both Swedish and international industry partners.

For his research and leadership, Leygraf has received numerous prestigious international awards. These include the Herbert Uhlig Award (2003, USA), the Khwarizmi International Award (2006, Iran), the Willis Rodney Whitney Award (2007, USA), the U.R. Evans Award (2009, UK), the European Corrosion Medal (2013, EFC), and the Marcel Pourbaix Award (2017, ICC). Through his work, Leygraf has not only advanced the understanding of corrosion science but also fostered global partnerships, interdisciplinary collaboration, and mentorship for the next generation of scientists.

Dr. David M. Bastidas
Prof. Dr. Raman Singh
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Corrosion and Materials Degradation is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

atmospheric corrosion
environmental degradation
environmentally assisted cracking
localized corrosion
crevice corrosion
surface electrochemistry

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 5719 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogen Embrittlement Susceptibility of New Generation Advanced High-Strength Steels for Automotive Applications

by James Lelliott, Elizabeth Sackett, Neil McMurray and Douglas Figueroa-Gordon

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040061 - 24 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The adoption of advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) in the automotive industry has significantly increased in recent years driven by weight reduction and enhanced crashworthiness. Hot dip galvanised sacrificial coatings are regularly applied to these steels for corrosion protection. In this investigation, the scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET) demonstrated that hydrogen evolution on the steel substrate is taking place when these sacrificial coatings are damaged during service, increasing the risk of hydrogen embrittlement. The hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of a new generation of nano-precipitate ferritic, FNP, AHSS have been studied and compared against conventional dual phase ferritic-martensitic, FM, AHSS at equivalent strength levels. Hydrogen permeation tests have shown that FNP AHSS have lower effective diffusion coefficients, D_eff, than FM AHSS at equivalent strength levels. At 800 MPa strength levels D_eff were 1.68 × 10⁻⁷ cm²/s and 1.87 × 10⁻⁷ cm²/s for FNP800 and FM800, respectively. At higher strength levels, 1000 MPa, D_eff were 7.45 × 10⁻⁸ cm²/s and 1.45 × 10⁻⁷ cm²/s for the FNP1000 and FM1000, respectively. Slow strain-rate tests (SSRT) showed that FNP AHSS displayed over 35% higher resistance to hydrogen embrittlement than conventional FM AHSS. Quantitative fractographic analyses confirmed that the new ferritic nano-precipitate microstructure retains much more ductile behaviour than conventional martensitic-ferritic even under the most severe hydrogen charging conditions tested. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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10 pages, 1814 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Characterization of a Dual-Layer Coating with Synergistic Ionic Selectivity and Photocathodic Protection Property

by Chuyuan Cui, Yongsheng An, Xiangpeng Wang and Ping Qiu

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040060 - 17 Nov 2025

Viewed by 328

Abstract

Inspired by the mechanism of ion exchange resins, this study is a first-report in constructing a dual-layer photocathodic protective coating with ionic selectivity to enhance corrosion resistance property. The microstructure, composition, and ion selectivity of the coating are characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and membrane potential. It shows that the outer g-C₃N₄/TiO₂ cation-selective layer plays a role in preventing corrosive Cl⁻ ions passing through the coating; the inner g-C₃N₄-TiO₂-CTAB anion-selective layer could prevent Fe²⁺ ions from diffusing through the coating. Furthermore, the coated carbon steel sample demonstrates a minimum OCP (open circuit potential) value of −770 mV (vs. SCE) under illumination in 3.5% NaCl media. Interestingly, the OCP remains around −720 mV (vs. SCE) even after light deprivation. The synergistic effect between ion selectivity and photocathodic protection is described, in detail, in the following. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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19 pages, 13593 KB

Open AccessArticle

Studies of Initial Atmospheric Corrosion of Magnesium Alloys AZ91 and AZ31 with Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques

by Dan Persson, Alexander Wärnheim, Nathalie LeBozec and Dominique Thierry

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040059 - 17 Nov 2025

Viewed by 279

Abstract

The initial formation of corrosion products in pure humid air on magnesium alloys AZ91 and AZ31 was studied using infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS), infrared spectroscopic imaging, and SEM-EDS. The kinetics of corrosion product formation were monitored in situ with IRRAS during exposure to humid air (95% relative humidity) under two different CO₂ concentrations: low (≤1 ppm) and ambient (400 ppm). For low CO₂ concentrations, the primary corrosion product detected on both alloys was magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂). In contrast, under ambient CO₂ conditions (400 ppm), magnesium hydroxy carbonate was the dominant product. After 16 h of exposure, the amount of magnesium converted into corrosion products was approximately 8–10 times higher under low-CO₂ conditions compared to ambient levels. The smaller formation of corrosion products but increased magnesium carbonate formation on AZ91D is attributed to its higher aluminium content compared to AZ31. Corrosion attack and product formation were largely localised to the centre of the α-phase in AZ91D, with the β-phase likely serving as sites for cathodic reactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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12 pages, 1193 KB

Open AccessArticle

First-Principles Study of Rare-Earth Doping Effects on Nitrogen Adsorption and Diffusion in Chromium

by Shuhui Chen, Bao Chen, Min Liu, Ji Liu, Gen Li and Ying Jin

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040057 - 12 Nov 2025

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Abstract

To address the premature corrosion failure of chromium-based coatings in harsh environments (e.g., high temperatures, chloride-containing solutions), this work systematically investigates how rare-earth (RE, i.e., Ce and La) elements regulate nitrogen (N) adsorption and diffusion behavior in Cr during the early stages of nitriding, a critical corrosion protection strategy, using first-principles density functional theory (DFT). Results show that RE preferentially occupies Cr substitutional site, increasing the Young’s modulus from 293.5 GPa (pristine Cr) to 344.9 GPa (Ce-doped) and 348.7 GPa (La-doped). Surface RE doping on Cr(110) significantly enhances N adsorption energy from −3.23 eV to −3.559/−3.645 eV (Ce-/La-doped), whereas subsurface doping slightly weakens the adsorption. Moreover, the energy barrier for N penetration into subsurface is reduced from 2.11 eV to 2.03/1.91 eV (Ce-/La-doped), thereby facilitating nitridation. Notably, RE is found to strongly trap vacancies and N atoms, leading to increased migration barriers and thus hindering their long-range transport. These findings demonstrate that RE exhibits a dual role during nitriding: promoting N incorporation at the surface while restricting its deep diffusion into the bulk. The study provides theoretical insights into the atomistic mechanisms by which RE elements modulate nitriding efficiency in Cr-based alloys, offering guidance for the design of RE-doped surface-modified coatings with improved corrosion resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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22 pages, 11896 KB

Open AccessArticle

Atmospheric Corrosion Kinetics and QPQ Coating Failure of 30CrMnSiA Steel Under a Deposited Salt Film

by Wenchao Li, Shilong Chen, Hui Xiao, Xiaofei Jiao, Yurong Wang, Shuwei Song, Songtao Yan and Ying Jin

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040053 - 16 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Atmospheric corrosion in sand dust environments is driven by deposits that bear chloride, which sustain thin electrolyte layers on metal surfaces. We established a laboratory protocol to replicate this by extracting, formulating, and depositing a preliminary layer of mixed salts from natural dust onto samples, with humidity precisely set using the salt’s deliquescence behavior. Degradation was tracked with SEM/EDS, 3D profilometry, XRD, and electrochemical analysis. Bare steel showed progressive yet decelerating attack as rust evolved from discrete islands to a lamellar network; while this densification limited transport, its internal cracks and interfacial gaps trapped chlorides, sustaining activity beneath the rust. In contrast, QPQ-treated steel remained largely protected, with damage localized at coating defects as raised rust nodules, while intact regions maintained low electrochemical activity. By coupling salt chemistries derived from the field with humidity control guided by deliquescence and diagnostics across multiple scales, this study provides a reproducible laboratory pathway to predict atmospheric corrosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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18 pages, 14586 KB

Open AccessArticle

Patina Formation and Aesthetic Durability of Architectural Copper and Copper Alloys in the Marine–Desert Environment of Dubai

by Inger Odnevall and Gunilla Herting

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040051 - 14 Oct 2025

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Abstract

The use of copper and its alloys in architecture, especially in arid regions, is growing, driven by visual appeal, functional advantages, and sustainability. Changes in visual and colorimetric appearances and patina formation were evaluated for architectural Cu metal, brass (CuZn15), bronze (CuSn4), and a golden alloy (CuZn5Al5). Coupons were exposed over 4 years in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, at a test site located 2 km from the seashore under unsheltered conditions, and at various surface inclinations. Comparative exposures were conducted in Brest, France, at sites of increasing distance from the seashore. Visual appearance was assessed by colorimetry and optical imaging; patina cross-sections were characterized by means of scanning electron microscopy and elemental analysis (SEM/EDS), and crystalline phase identification was conducted by means of x-ray diffraction (XRD). All Dubai surfaces developed red-yellowish, heterogeneous patinas with embedded sand and dust, reducing lightness and visual appeal. Inclination had minor effect, although some extent of spallation occurred on downward-facing CuSn4. Even the corrosion-resistant CuZn5Al5 alloy lost its golden hue due to the incorporation of sand and dust into the patina. In Brest, appearance depended on the distance from the seashore, with green-blue patinas near the sea and red-yellowish farther inland, similar to Dubai. Cleaning may restore some luster, but the desert exposure generally reduced the long-term aesthetic performance of all materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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18 pages, 5585 KB

Open AccessArticle

Corrosion Mechanisms of Commercial Superalloys in Binary and Ternary Chloride Molten Salts

by Hongyi Hu, Xian Zhang, Tianyou Huang, Rui Yu and Kaiming Wu

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040049 - 10 Oct 2025

Viewed by 532

Abstract

In concentrated solar power (CSP) systems, structural materials face severe corrosion challenges induced by molten chlorides, with the corrosion severity being highly dependent on the salt composition. This study systematically compares the corrosion behavior of two representative superalloys, Inconel 625 and SS321, in binary NaCl–KCl and ternary MgCl₂–NaCl–KCl molten salts at 700 °C. The corrosion products and microstructural features were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), in combination with static exposure tests to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. The results show that in NaCl–KCl molten salts, both alloys primarily form Cr₂O₃ as the protective product. However, the corrosion scale of SS321 is porous, whereas Inconel 625 develops a dense NiCr₂O₄ inner layer, exhibiting superior corrosion resistance. In the MgCl₂–NaCl–KCl molten salt system, Cr₂O₃ is replaced by a dense MgO layer forms on Inconel 625, coupled with Mo surface enrichment, which significantly inhibits Cr depletion and leads to a notably reduced corrosion rate relative to the binary salt. In contrast, the transformation of Cr₂O₃ on SS321 into porous MgCr₂O₄ exacerbates intergranular corrosion, resulting in a substantial degradation of corrosion resistance. This study elucidates the distinct corrosion pathways and mechanisms of different alloys in binary and ternary chloride salts, providing important guidance for the selection of molten salt compositions and corrosion-resistant structural materials in CSP applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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7 pages, 1562 KB

Open AccessArticle

Co-Adsorption of Formic Acid and Hexane Selenol on Cu

by Mats Ahmadi Götelid, Sareh Ahmadi Götelid, Saman Hosseinpour, Christofer Leygraf and C. Magnus Johnson

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040048 - 26 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Self-assembled monolayers of alkane thiolate and alkane selenolate have been proven to inhibit atmospheric corrosion, but upon prolonged exposure to the important constituents of indoor atmosphere, namely humidified air with formic acid, the protective layer eventually breaks, but the exact reason is not yet clear. In this paper, we report on an XPS study of co-adsorbed formic acid and hexane selenol on a Cu surface. Adsorption of hexane selenol at room temperature breaks the Se-C bond, leaving a monolayer of Se on the surface, whereas adsorption at 140 K leaves a layer of selenolate. Formic acid exposure to the selenolate-Cu surface leads to adsorbed formate on unprotected areas and absorption of formic acid within the alkane chain network. During heating, the formic acid desorbs and the Se-C bond breaks, but formic acid does not accelerate the Se-C scission, which occurs just below room temperature both with and without formic acid. Thus, formic acid alone does not affect the Se-C bond, but its presence may create disorder and open up the alkane carpet for other species. Selenol removes formate and oxide from the surface at room temperature. The Se-C bond breaks and the alkane chain reacts with surface oxygen to form carbon oxides and volatile hydrocarbons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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21 pages, 3818 KB

Open AccessArticle

Atmospheric Corrosion of Steel on the Australian Pacific Central Coast

by Robert Jeffrey and Robert E. Melchers

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(3), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6030044 - 16 Sep 2025

Viewed by 862

Abstract

Comprehensive data are presented for corrosion losses of mild steel exposed for up to 5 years, all obtained from exposing steel coupons at one specific severe marine exposure site on the Pacific Ocean coast. The test programme considered the effects of duration of exposure, inclination, orientation, height, shielding, and coupon variability, using multiple, nominally identical mild steel coupons, all under a single local climatic regime. Such a controlled, consistent, natural environment permits unique, valid comparison of the various influences, both for short-term and longer-term exposures, unlike previous tests of some parameters conducted in the short term at disparate sites. In contrast to coupons exposed only on one side, boldly exposed double-sided coupons corroded severely within 3 years. The effects on corrosion behaviour between individual coupons exposed at different heights and vertical continuous single strips of steel are described. Also reported are corrosion losses for continuous strips and for a series of coupons oriented in different directions. Observations of variability in corrosion losses for nominally identically exposed steel coupons are reported. The effect on corrosion losses with continued exposure to 5 years is reported and compared with information available in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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16 pages, 2042 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Anti-Corrosive Properties of Polyester Powder Coatings Through Montmorillonite-Based Nanoclay Additive and Film Thickness

by Marshall Shuai Yang, Chengqian Xian, Jian Chen, Yolanda Susanne Hedberg and James Joseph Noël

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(3), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6030039 - 25 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This research investigates the impact of incorporating montmorillonite-based nanoclay additives on the anti-corrosive properties of a polyester/triglycidyl isocyanurate (polyester/TGIC) powder coating on phosphated steel. The self-repairing capability facilitated by the swelling and expansion of nanoclay was demonstrated to enhance the corrosion resistance of the coatings significantly. A statistical Mixture Design methodology was employed to establish the optimal combination of nanoclay dosage and coating film thickness. Nineteen experiments were conducted using Design of Experiments, and two regression models were developed using the measured polarization resistance (R_p) and specular gloss values as responses. The mathematical maximization of the R_p value predicted an optimal nanoclay dosage of 4.1% with a corresponding film thickness of 80 µm. Statistical and experimental verification validated the results obtained from the regression models. Notably, the optimized coating demonstrated an R_p value one order of magnitude higher than the coating with 4% nanoclay and a standard film thickness of 60 µm. The behavior of the newly developed coatings was analyzed and compared through measurements of open circuit potential, polarization resistance, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The findings confirm the substantial improvement in the anti-corrosive and self-repairing properties of the polyester/TGIC powder coating with the incorporation of montmorillonite-based nanoclay additives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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24 pages, 3716 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Advanced AFM and SKPFM Data Analytics for Quantitative Nanoscale Corrosion Characterization

by Mohammad Reza Attar and Ali Davoodi

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040058 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 256

Abstract

Corrosion is a complex, surface-initiated process that demands nanoscale, real-time characterization to understand its initiation and propagation. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning Kelvin probe force microscopy (SKPFM) have emerged as powerful tools in corrosion science, enabling high-resolution imaging and electrochemical mapping under realistic conditions. This review, inspired by pioneering work at KTH by Professors Christofer Leygraf and Jinshan Pan, highlights advanced analytical strategies that extend the capabilities of AFM and SKPFM beyond traditional line-profile analysis. Techniques such as power spectral density (PSD) analysis, multimodal Gaussian histogram fitting, statistical roughness quantification, and deconvolution methods are discussed in the context of case studies on aluminum alloys, stainless steels, magnesium alloys, biomedical implants, and protective coatings. By integrating in situ imaging, electrochemical mapping, and statistical data processing, these approaches provide deeper insights into localized corrosion, micro-galvanic coupling, and surface reactivity. Future directions include coupling AFM-based methods with high-speed imaging, machine learning, and spectro-electrochemical techniques to accelerate the development of corrosion-resistant materials and enable probabilistic diagnostics of corrosion initiation susceptibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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25 pages, 5549 KB

Open AccessReview

Synchrotron X-Ray Techniques for In Situ or Microscopic Study of Passive Films on Industrial Alloys: A Mini Review

by Jinshan Pan

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040056 - 4 Nov 2025

Viewed by 459

Abstract

The spontaneous formation and stability of a protective passive film on a metal surface are crucial for the metal material’s corrosion resistance during its service life. Passive films have been extensively studied, and our understanding of passive films has been significantly improved with the development of advanced analytical techniques. Modern synchrotron X-ray sources offer unprecedented possibilities for detailed analyses of passive films and for in situ and operando studies of passive films in both gaseous/aqueous environments, as well as in electrochemical environments. This mini review presents a short summary of recent studies on passive films, mainly focusing on stainless steels and nickel-base alloys, which utilize state-of-the-art synchrotron X-ray techniques, particularly X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), often in combination with other synchrotron techniques such as X-ray adsorption, diffraction, reflectivity, and fluorescence. These reports demonstrate that synchrotron-based techniques greatly improve probing sensitivity and spatial resolution, enabling in situ and operando studies of passive films at solid–liquid interfaces. These studies reveal changes in the passive film and underlying alloy layer, highlighting the important role of hydroxides, as well as the inhomogeneity in passive films associated with the complex microstructures in advanced industrial alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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25 pages, 5915 KB

Open AccessReview

Corrosion and Soiling in the 21st Century: Insights from ICP Materials and Impact on Cultural Heritage

by Johan Tidblad, Alice Moya Núñez, Daniel de la Fuente, Gino Ebell, Tore Flatlandsmo Berglen, Terje Grøntoft, Ulrik Hans, Ioannis Christodoulakis, Daniel Kajánek, Kateřina Kreislová, Lech Kwiatkowski, Teresa La Torreta, Rafał Lutze, Guadalupe Pinar Larrubia, Valentina Pintus, Michael Prange, Pasquale Spezzano, Costas Varotsos, Aurélie Verney-Carron, Tiina Vuorio and Tim Yates Show full author list Hide full author list

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(4), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6040054 - 22 Oct 2025

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Abstract

This paper reviews results published by the International Co-operative Programme on Effects on Materials including Historic and Cultural Monuments (ICP Materials) with emphasis on those obtained after the turn of the century. Data from ICP Materials come from two main sources. The first is through exposures of materials and collection of environmental data in a network of atmospheric exposure test sites mainly distributed across Europe. Corrosion of carbon steel has continued to decrease during the period 2000–2020 but corrosion of zinc only up until 2014, and the trend in zinc corrosion is only visible when examining four-year data. Surface recession of limestone as well as soiling of modern glass show no decreasing trend during 2000–2020. The second is through case studies performed at heritage sites across Europe. Risk analysis of corrosion and soiling for twenty-six sites indicate that currently soiling is a more significant maintenance trigger than corrosion. Costs for maintaining heritage sites are substantial and costs attributable to air pollution is estimated from 40% to as much as 80% of the total cost. Future directions of the program are work on effects of particulate matter, improving the scientific basis for the work, and making the monitoring data publicly available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Corrosion, Surface Electrochemistry and Environmental Degradation of Materials: In Honor of Prof. Christofer Leygraf)

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