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A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2026) | Viewed by 8944

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Mengmeng Li

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Guest Editor

School of Architecture and Design, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
Interests: urban landscape ecological planning for noise control

Dr. Shuming Zhang

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Guest Editor

School of Architecture, Huaqiao University, Quanzhou 362021, China
Interests: history of modern chinese architectural technology; building material diseases; historic building restoration techniques; healthy space

Prof. Dr. Jose-Manuel Almodovar-Melendo

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Guest Editor

School of Architecture, University of Seville, 41004 Seville, Spain
Interests: passive solar design; daylighting in architecture; indoor environmental quality; built environment; low-energy buildings
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Xi Deng

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Guest Editor

Department of Urban Planning and Design, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Interests: environmental design; urban regeneration; smart buildings

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are thrilled to invite you to contribute to a Special Issue entitled "Architecture and Landscape Architecture" in Buildings. The fields of architecture and landscape architecture are constantly evolving, driven by technological advancements, environmental concerns, and the pursuit of creating harmonious living spaces. In response to these dynamics, there is a pressing need to delve into cutting-edge research that offers innovative designs and sustainable solutions for the built environment.

This Special Issue aims to cover a broad spectrum of topics within architecture and landscape architecture, serving as a platform for scholars and practitioners to exchange their knowledge and experiences. We welcome submissions that address, but are not restricted to, the following areas:

Artificial intelligence in architecture and landscape architecture;
Design methods and models for enhancing human settlements;
Low-carbon design technologies and strategies;
Regional expression of high-performance construction;
Nature-based solutions (NbSs);
The history of architectural technology;
Ecological security assessment and planning;
Urban acoustic environment prediction, optimization, and evaluation;
Design and optimization of urban slow-mobility systems.

Dr. Mengmeng Li
Dr. Shuming Zhang
Prof. Dr. Jose-Manuel Almodovar-Melendo
Dr. Xi Deng
Guest Editors

Dezhi Zou
Guest Editor Assistant

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

artificial intelligence
human settlements
low-carbon design
regional architecture
nature-based solutions
architectural technology history
ecological planning
acoustic environment
slow mobility systems

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

31 pages, 6269 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evolutionary Characteristics of Floor Plan Design in Public Rental Housing in Korean New Towns: Case Studies from 1990 to 2010

by Hyojeong Kim

Buildings 2026, 16(9), 1828; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16091828 - 4 May 2026

Viewed by 185

Abstract

Since the 1980s, South Korea has continuously supplied public rental housing alongside the development of new towns. However, systematic studies examining the relationship between qualitative changes in floor plan design and the institutional factors influencing them remain limited. This study is based on the premise that floor plans in public rental housing are not merely the result of design improvements, but are structurally shaped by legal and institutional frameworks. It systematically analyzes changes in floor plan types and planning elements according to development periods and housing sizes. To achieve this, this study examines public rental housing supplied in Korean new towns from the 1990s to the 2010s, classifying floor plan types by period and housing size and analyzing their planning characteristics. The analysis focuses on the composition and arrangement of interior spaces, the size of each space, bay structure, and aspect ratio. A comparative analysis further examines the relationship between floor plan changes and relevant laws and institutional frameworks. The results show that floor plan configurations evolved in distinct phases in response to institutional changes and housing size differentiation. In the 1990s, standardized one-bay layouts with integrated living and sleeping spaces were predominant under strict regulatory conditions, including spatial dimension constraints. In the 2000s, following the legalization of balcony extensions, floor plans diversified into two-bay and three-bay configurations. In the 2010s, floor plan types became increasingly diversified and complex under the influence of district unit plans and detailed design guidelines issued by public agencies. In terms of housing size, smaller units (around 20 m²) maintained simplified one-room configurations, while medium-sized units (around 30–40 m²) exhibited a clear transition from integrated to functionally separated layouts, and larger units (around 50 m²) showed a significant increase in spatial diversity and variation in layout composition. These findings indicate that floor plan evolution is not a linear process of design improvement, but a structurally conditioned transformation shaped by regulatory frameworks, institutional changes, and path dependency. The persistence and gradual modification of earlier standardized layouts suggest that floor plan configurations are continuously reproduced and adapted within institutional constraints. By empirically identifying the structural relationship between institutional frameworks and floor plan design, this study reveals the mechanisms through which institutional conditions shape housing design. Furthermore, it contributes to an interdisciplinary understanding that integrates architecture, urban planning, and housing policy, and provides important implications for design guidelines and policy development aimed at improving the quality of public rental housing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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20 pages, 2494 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Evaluation of Spatial Perception Elements of Traditional Settlements in the West Liaohe River Basin Based on the IPA Method

by Jiajing Li, Jianing Li and Pei Zhang

Buildings 2026, 16(9), 1657; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16091657 - 23 Apr 2026

Viewed by 294

Abstract

The Western Liao River Basin is one of the cradles of Chinese civilization and is recognized as China’s third mother river, following the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. This study focuses on traditional settlements in the Western Liao River Basin and evaluates their spatial perception elements using the IPA (Importance–Satisfaction Analysis) method. By enriching research on the spatial perception evaluation of traditional settlements, this work provides guidance for the protection and inheritance of traditional settlements in the Western Liao River Basin. Based on a field survey of the current spatial conditions of these traditional settlements, an evaluation system for spatial perception elements is proposed. Using SPSS software, the importance and satisfaction scores of each evaluated element are determined. Using the IPA method, this study classified 18 spatial perception factors of traditional settlements in the West Liao River Basin into four categories: strengths, potential overkill, low priority, and urgent improvement. Differentiated conservation and optimization strategies were proposed based on these findings. The study also reveals that local residents’ spatial perception is an active construction process rooted in daily life and cultural practices, exhibiting characteristics of “place dependence” and “path orientation.” Elements rated as high in importance but low in satisfaction reflect residents’ cultural anxiety and sense of spatial loss. The study emphasizes that the conservation of traditional settlements should shift from expert-led approaches to local collaboration, fully incorporating residents’ cognitive patterns to construct a dynamic pathway for heritage transmission grounded in daily practices and cultural memory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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23 pages, 3682 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Composition Through Sectional Analysis: A Study of Japanese Independent Residences on Sloping Terrain (2015–2024)

by Yanchen Sun, Xingyi Liu, Jiaxin Li and Luyang Li

Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1340; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071340 - 27 Mar 2026

Viewed by 449

Abstract

The relationship between architecture and sloping terrain constitutes a persistent subject in architectural discourse. Western scholarship has often emphasized structural, technical, and formal strategies, whereas systematic sectional studies focusing on Japanese residential works in sloped environments remain comparatively underexplored. This study aims to elucidate the characteristics and design logic of sectional composition through an analysis of 55 independent Japanese residential projects on sloping terrain from the period 2015 to 2024. Employing an analytical framework that integrates external composition (orientation of the approach path and grounding condition of the building volume) with internal composition (sectional relationship between the entrance and the main room), the research identifies six fundamental sectional types and their sub-patterns. From these, three core design logics are derived: transforming slope directionality into internal circulation sequences, establishing a contrastive relationship between building volume and terrain, and adapting the terrain through leveling to prioritize functional layout. By maintaining a consistent analytical framework with the foundational study, the research enables a diachronic comparison that reveals both continuities and shifts in sectional design strategies over the past two decades. Architects’ own design statements are incorporated to corroborate the spatial narratives embedded in these compositional strategies. The findings demonstrate that contemporary Japanese sloping terrain residences employ diverse approaches ranging from topographic integration to volumetric dialog, showing that sectional organization not only responds to topographic conditions but also shapes spatial experience and dwelling logic. This study provides a typological reference for sloping terrain residential design and contributes an empirical foundation for understanding the intrinsic compositional relationship between architecture and terrain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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38 pages, 4793 KB

Open AccessArticle

Conceptual Analysis of Landscape Characteristics and Crossbeam Morphology of Pylons in Long-Span Suspension Bridges Based on Force–Form Integration Theory

by Junlong Zhu, Fenghui Dong, Junjie Shao and Kefan Wu

Buildings 2026, 16(6), 1220; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16061220 - 19 Mar 2026

Viewed by 408

Abstract

The aim of this study is to identify the key determinants of the landscape characteristics of long-span suspension bridges. Based on core principles of bridge aesthetics, more than thirty iconic long-span suspension bridges in the Yangtze River Basin were selected as case studies. Using the proposed “force–form integration” principle, their landscape characteristics were interpreted, and the evolution of structural forms and morphological development pathways was analyzed from component-level features to the overall landscape imagery. The effects of key design parameters—such as crossbeam configuration, pylon geometry, and structural proportions—on the bridge’s landscape expression were systematically examined. The results indicate that, for cross-river suspension bridges, the overall landscape characteristics are primarily embodied in the morphology of the main pylons; the landscape expression of the main pylons is largely shaped by crossbeam configuration; and the landscape characteristics of crossbeams can be classified into seven typical types. On this basis, a logical framework is established to describe the evolution of landscape morphology in bridge pylons and crossbeams. This framework is further integrated with computational aesthetic indicators—such as harmony, proportionality, and density—for quantitative evaluation, thereby providing a theoretical basis and methodological support for the landscape design of such bridges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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28 pages, 9895 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing High-Rise Residential Form for Multi-Source Landscape View Access: A Target-Based Visibility Analysis Under Performance Constraints

by Yang Guo, Dongchi Lai, Yuchuan Zheng, Yechang Zou, Jiaming Yu and Bo Gao

Buildings 2026, 16(4), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040790 - 14 Feb 2026

Viewed by 419

Abstract

In high-density urban environments, residential design often faces a conflict between maximizing landscape access and maintaining energy-oriented compactness. This study proposes a target-based visibility analysis framework to optimize high-rise forms under strict performance constraints. Utilizing a Quad-mesh reconstruction strategy and Inverse Targeted Ray-Casting, the method accurately quantifies visibility via the cumulative Landscape Visible Surface (LVS) on the target building and Viewpoint-Specific Surface Visibility Rate (R_v) for precise verification against specific landscape targets. The framework is applied to evaluate three morphological prototypes: Compact Tower, Dispersed Tower, and Slab–Tower Hybrid. Quantitative simulations identified the Slab–Tower Hybrid as the optimal solution, demonstrating superior “Visual Morphological Efficiency.” While maintaining a moderate Shape Coefficient (SC = 0.326) to satisfy energy standards, the Hybrid achieved a cumulative Park-View LVS approximately 1.8 times that of the Compact Tower. Furthermore, environmental simulations indicated the Hybrid fosters stable wind environments (0.4–0.7 m/s) and equitable sunlight distribution. The research concluded that through differentiated massing, high-rise architecture can achieve a synergistic balance between visual openness and physical compactness, transforming view analysis from a passive check into an active design driver. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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32 pages, 2249 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Systematic Mapping of Grey Literature on K–12 School Acoustic Design

by Xuanwei He, Yunpeng Zhao, Xiangyu Meng, Xinxin Li and Yuan Zhang

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 587; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030587 - 30 Jan 2026

Viewed by 739

Abstract

Classroom acoustic conditions significantly affect students’ learning outcomes and teachers’ occupational health, yet a systematic gap persists between optimal acoustic standards established in research and their implementation in practice. Although peer-reviewed literature has defined performance thresholds, guidance on which design strategies effectively achieve these targets across different school spaces remains limited. Grey literature—project documentation from architectural firms, acoustic consultants, and material suppliers—contains valuable practice-based evidence. This study aimed to map practice-based evidence in K–12 school acoustic design, identify dominant space–strategy patterns, and appraise evidence quality through systematic mapping of grey literature. Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, systematic searches were conducted across 27 websites representing three source types, yielding 142 projects from 22 countries. Data extraction employed a standardised coding framework encompassing project metadata, 19 space types, and 16 acoustic strategy subcategories within five major categories. Evidence quality was assessed using a quantified AACODS framework (score range 6–30), with inter-rater reliability (ICC = 0.989). The evidence landscape revealed geographic concentration in North America (41.5%) and the Asia–Pacific region (26.8%), with architectural firms contributing most documentation (54.2%). Space–strategy analysis identified dominant patterns: classrooms and corridors primarily employed absorptive ceilings combined with wall treatment, gymnasiums relied on suspended absorbers, and performance spaces used multi-strategy packages including variable acoustics systems. Open-plan learning spaces displayed high strategy diversity without consensus solutions. Mean quality score was 15.2/30 (SD = 3.0), with only 16.9% of projects reporting quantitative performance indicators. These findings reveal a substantial research-to-practice gap and provide an empirical basis for developing targeted acoustic design guidance for practitioners, informing policy, standards, and future research directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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19 pages, 6339 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Coniferous Tree–Shrub Mixtures on Traffic Noise Reduction in Public Spaces

by Qi Meng, Olga Evgrafova and Mengmeng Li

Buildings 2025, 15(23), 4266; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234266 - 26 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1128

Abstract

Despite the well-established ability of urban green belts to reduce traffic noise, a comprehensive analysis of the specific role played by mixed coniferous trees and shrubs in noise mitigation remains lacking. This study aimed to clarify how different planting patterns and the characteristics of plants affect their noise-reduction performance. To achieve this, noise reduction was measured at 18 roadside green spaces comprising mixed coniferous trees and shrubs in Harbin, China, and Moscow, Russia. The results indicate that in lanes 5–15 m wide, the ‘Abreast’ planting pattern consistently offered greater noise reduction than the ‘Taffy’ configuration at all measured distances (5, 10 and 15 m). In addition, in winter the effectiveness of noise reduction improved due to snow cover, which enhanced the sound-absorbing properties of the vegetation. In our analysis, key factors such as diameter at breast height, minimum height under branches and road width emerged as crucial predictors of traffic noise reduction. Among these, carriageway width and sidewalk width exhibited the strongest correlations with noise attenuation. Finally, we developed a quantitative model for roadside green spaces that incorporates plant characteristics, planting schemes and road features. This model allows us to assess the contribution of each factor to overall noise reduction. The results of this study provide a scientific basis for designing and optimising vegetation-based noise-mitigation strategies to enhance the urban acoustic environment while also offering an analytical framework to support evidence-based urban forestry planning and policy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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18 pages, 3098 KB

Open AccessArticle

Walking Behavior Modeling in Urban Pedestrian-Only Spaces for Analysing Multiple Factors Influencing Pedestrian Density Distribution

by Shi Sun, Cheng Sun, Ying Liu, Yang Yang and Dagang Qu

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3930; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213930 - 30 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1412

Abstract

Urban pedestrian-only spaces face challenges like inadequate leisure experiences and user discomfort. To enhance spatial conditions, it is crucial to evaluate various influencing factors. Many studies focus on individual elements, missing the benefits of a comprehensive approach. This study aims to propose a pedestrian behavior prediction model that establishes the relationship between multiple spatial factors and pedestrian distribution. We introduce a two-layer simulation framework for pedestrian dynamics, comprising a tactic layer responsible for path planning and an operational layer for velocity prediction based on the social force model. This framework enhances prediction accuracy, achieving a 46.3% improvement over the conventional model. Moreover, it underscores the importance of a holistic approach, emphasizing the need to consider group dynamics and random behaviors in pedestrian modeling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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26 pages, 41775 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Street Elements on the Social Activities of the Elderly in Severe Winter Conditions: A Case Study of Harbin, China

by Kexin Yang, Ying Xu, Mengda Wang, Simon Bell and Yang Yu

Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3079; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173079 - 28 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1375

Abstract

The phenomenon of global population aging poses considerable mobility challenges for older adults, particularly in cold climate regions, where the accessibility and configuration of street elements exert a significant impact on social participation and safety during severe winter conditions. Employing a combination of non-participatory observation, behavior mapping, and spatial analysis across different winter periods, this study investigates three residential streets in Harbin, China. The research systematically documents the types, frequencies, and spatial distributions of both social activities and street infrastructure utilized by the elderly. Subsequently, kernel density overlays of elderly social activity and street element distributions enable a nuanced analysis of the influence of environmental features on older adults’ social engagement throughout the three delineated winter phases. The findings reveal the following: (1) There is persistent demand for outdoor social interaction among the elderly, with participation rates inversely proportional to the severity of winter, peaking in early winter and declining through late and harsh winter stages; (2) Variations in activity types and durations are closely associated with spatial configurations: dynamic activities are predominantly observed along linear street segments, whereas passive behaviors cluster at intersections and broader street expanses; (3) There are several key aspects of street design and street furniture provision that help to support the use of streets in winter by the elderly. However, the influence of seating and fitness elements on mobile activities is limited. This study contributes to promoting inclusive urban design for older people in cold climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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18 pages, 2834 KB

Open AccessArticle

LCA Views of Low-Carbon Strategy in Historic Shopping District Decoration—Case Study in Harbin

by Lin Geng, Jiayi Gao, Minghui Xue and Yuelin Yang

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2944; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162944 - 19 Aug 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1327

Abstract

This study focuses on buildings in the Chinese–Baroque Historic Shopping District in Harbin. In view of global climate change and high carbon emissions from the construction industry, this study aims to quantify carbon emissions during the decoration process and explore low-carbon decoration strategies that suit the local characteristics. This research adopts a four-stage framework of “data collection–quantitative analysis–strategy design–verification and optimization” and integrates Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and multi-objective optimization theory. Data are collected through questionnaires and field investigations, and simulations and analyses are carried out using Grasshopper and Honeybee. The results show that there are differences in carbon emissions between different decoration schemes. The chosen scheme of raw concrete and paint results in relatively low carbon emissions over the 10.12-year usage cycle. Based on this, design strategies such as extending the service life of decorations, rationally renovating windows, and preferentially selecting local low-carbon materials are proposed and applied to practical projects. This study not only fills a gap in the research on the low-carbon renovation of historical commercial blocks from the perspective of LCA but also provides practical solutions for the sustainable development of historical shopping blocks in Harbin and similar regions, promoting the low-carbon transformation of cities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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