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Brain Sciences
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Application of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in Motor Control and...
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Application of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in Motor Control and Learning

A special issue of Brain Sciences (ISSN 2076-3425). This special issue belongs to the section "Neurotechnology and Neuroimaging".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 November 2025) | Viewed by 1876

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Sean Meehan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Kinesiology and Health Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
Interests: transcranial magnetic stimulation; sensorimotor control; stroke rehabilitation; concussion

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

TMS provides a non-invasive method to induce neural activity in the human brain that can be used to assess or modulate the underlying cortical mechanisms governing motor control and learning. Single and paired-pulse assessments, including dual-site TMS, assess how corticospinal projections, intracortical circuits, and corticocortical or cerebellar-cortical loops shape motor control and change with learning. Repetitive TMS protocols probe mechanisms of neuroplasticity and offer the potential to enhance clinical approaches to movement disorders.

This Special Issue seeks to assemble original research and review papers highlighting the novel application of conventional approaches and emerging TMS technologies to our understanding of motor control and learning. Basic and clinical studies investigating the role of intra- and intercortical mechanisms in the brain–behavior relationship or those seeking to exploit mechanistic knowledge to enhance motor ability are particularly encouraged. Studies examining the neurophysiological mechanisms targeted by TMS methodologies, including controllable pulse parameter TMS, are also encouraged. 

Dr. Sean Meehan
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Brain Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • transcranial magnetic stimulation
  • non-invasive
  • motor
  • sensorimotor
  • intracortical
  • neuroplasticity
  • basic neuroscience
  • clinical neuroscience
  • dual-site TMS

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Published Papers (3 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 1478 KB  
Article
Mixed-Frequency rTMS Rapidly Modulates Multiscale EEG Biomarkers of Excitation–Inhibition Balance in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Single-Case Report
by Alptekin Aydin, Ali Yildirim, Olga Kara and Zachary Mwenda
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(12), 1269; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15121269 - 26 Nov 2025
Abstract
Background: Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is an established neuromodulatory method, yet its multiscale neurophysiological effects in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) remain insufficiently characterized. Recent EEG analytic advances—such as spectral parameterization, long-range temporal correlation (LRTC) assessment, and connectivity modeling—enable quantitative evaluation of [...] Read more.
Background: Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is an established neuromodulatory method, yet its multiscale neurophysiological effects in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) remain insufficiently characterized. Recent EEG analytic advances—such as spectral parameterization, long-range temporal correlation (LRTC) assessment, and connectivity modeling—enable quantitative evaluation of excitation–inhibition (E/I) balance and network organization. Objective: This study aimed to examine whether an eight-session, EEG-guided mixed-frequency rTMS protocol—combining inhibitory 1 Hz and excitatory 10 Hz trains individualized to quantitative EEG (qEEG) abnormalities—produces measurable changes in spectral dynamics, temporal correlations, and functional connectivity in a pediatric ASD case. Methods: An 11-year-old right-handed female with ASD (DSM-5-TR, ADOS-2) underwent resting-state EEG one week before and four months after intervention. Preprocessing used a validated automated pipeline, followed by spectral parameterization (FOOOF), detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA), and connectivity analyses (phase-lag index and Granger causality) in MATLAB (2023b). No inferential statistics were applied due to the single-case design. The study was conducted at Cosmos Healthcare (London, UK) with in-kind institutional support and approved by the Atlantic International University IRB (AIU-IRB-22-101). Results: Post-rTMS EEG showed (i) increased delta and reduced theta/alpha/beta power over central regions; (ii) steeper aperiodic slope and higher offset, maximal at Cz, suggesting increased inhibitory tone; (iii) reduced Hurst exponents (1–10 Hz) at Fz, Cz, and Pz, indicating decreased long-range temporal correlations; (iv) reorganization of hubs away from midline with marked Cz decoupling; and (v) strengthened parietal-to-central directional connectivity (Pz→Cz) with reduced Cz→Pz influence. Conclusions: Mixed-frequency, EEG-guided rTMS produced convergent changes across spectral, aperiodic, temporal, and connectivity measures consistent with modulation of cortical E/I balance and network organization. Findings are preliminary and hypothesis-generating. The study was supported by in-kind resources from Cosmos Healthcare, whose authors participated as investigators but had no influence on analysis or interpretation. Controlled trials are warranted to validate these exploratory results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in Motor Control and Learning)
19 pages, 966 KB  
Article
Sensitivity to Instruction Strategies in Motor Learning Is Predicted by Anterior–Posterior TMS Motor Thresholds
by Michael L. Perrier, Kylee R. Graham, Jessica E. Vander Vaart, W. Richard Staines and Sean K. Meehan
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(6), 645; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15060645 - 16 Jun 2025
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Abstract
Background: The impact of exogenous explicit knowledge on early motor learning is highly variable and may be influenced by excitability within the procedural sensorimotor network. Recent transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies suggest that variability in interneuron recruitment by anterior–posterior (AP) currents is linked [...] Read more.
Background: The impact of exogenous explicit knowledge on early motor learning is highly variable and may be influenced by excitability within the procedural sensorimotor network. Recent transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies suggest that variability in interneuron recruitment by anterior–posterior (AP) currents is linked to differences in functional connectivity between premotor and motor regions. Objectives: This study used controllable pulse parameter TMS (cTMS) to assess how AP-sensitive interneuron excitability interacts with explicit knowledge to influence motor learning. Methods: Seventy-two participants were grouped as AP-positive (n = 36) and AP-negative groups (n = 36) based on whether an AP threshold could be obtained before reaching maximal stimulator output. A narrow (30 µs) stimulus was employed to target the longest latency corticospinal inputs selectively. Participants then practiced a continuous visuomotor tracking task and completed a delayed retention test. Half of each group received explicit knowledge of a repeated sequence embedded between random sequences. Random sequence tracking performance assessed general sensorimotor efficiency; repeated sequence performance assessed sequence-specific learning. Results: Both AP30-positive participants, with and without explicit knowledge, and the AP30-negative without explicit knowledge demonstrated similar improvements in sensorimotor efficiency driven by offline consolidation. However, AP30-negative participants given explicit instruction exhibited significantly reduced improvement in sensorimotor efficiency, primarily due to impaired offline consolidation. Conclusions: These findings suggest that individuals with low excitability in long-latency AP-sensitive inputs may be more vulnerable to interference from explicit instruction. The current results highlight the importance of accounting for individual differences in interneuron excitability when developing instructional strategies for motor learning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in Motor Control and Learning)
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13 pages, 825 KB  
Systematic Review
Effects of Navigated rTMS on Post-Stroke Upper-Limb Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
by Jungwoo Shim and Changju Kim
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(11), 1247; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15111247 - 20 Nov 2025
Viewed by 445
Abstract
Objectives: Neuronavigation may improve the precision and reproducibility of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) by aligning stimulation with individualized targets. Whether navigation-guided rTMS benefits post-stroke upper-limb recovery is unclear. We conducted a PRISMA-compliant systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the effect of navigated [...] Read more.
Objectives: Neuronavigation may improve the precision and reproducibility of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) by aligning stimulation with individualized targets. Whether navigation-guided rTMS benefits post-stroke upper-limb recovery is unclear. We conducted a PRISMA-compliant systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the effect of navigated rTMS, added to standard rehabilitation, versus sham. Methods: The protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251165052). Two reviewers independently searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Google Scholar (October 2025), screened records, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias (Cochrane RoB-1). The prespecified primary endpoint was changed in Fugl–Meyer Assessment of the upper extremity (FMA-UE) from baseline to end of treatment. Effects were pooled as mean differences under random-effects models. When change-score standard deviations (SDs) were unavailable, they were derived from pre/post SDs assuming within-person correlation r = 0.5; sensitivity analyses used r = 0.7 and r = 0.9. Multi-arm trials were combined to avoid double counting. Results: four randomized, sham-controlled trials (n = 297) contributed end-of-treatment change in FMA-UE. The pooled effect favored navigated rTMS but was not statistically significant (MD 3.65, 95% CI −1.84 to 9.13; I2 = 73%). Sensitivity analyses with higher r produced directionally consistent estimates. A subgroup of 2-week (10-session) protocols (k = 3) showed a significant benefit (MD 7.09, 95% CI 4.14 to 10.05; I2 = 0%). Most risk-of-bias domains were low risk. Conclusions: Navigated rTMS did not show a consistent short-term advantage over sham on FMA-UE across heterogeneous protocols. A positive signal in standardized 2-week courses supports further adequately powered multicenter randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with harmonized protocols and complete variance reporting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in Motor Control and Learning)
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