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17 pages, 1273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fine Motor Skills, Executive Function, and School Readiness in Preschoolers with Externalizing Behavior Problems

by Atefeh Karimi, Bridget Poznanski, Katie C. Hart and Eliza L. Nelson

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050708 - 21 May 2025

The objective of this study was to examine whether fine motor skills (FMS) and executive function (EF) are unique predictors of school readiness (SR). The sample was 108 preschoolers with externalizing behavior problems (EBP; Mean ± SD = 60.37 ± 3.94 months pre-intervention, [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to examine whether fine motor skills (FMS) and executive function (EF) are unique predictors of school readiness (SR). The sample was 108 preschoolers with externalizing behavior problems (EBP; Mean ± SD = 60.37 ± 3.94 months pre-intervention, 68% male) enrolled in a comprehensive 7-week school readiness summer program open trial. FMS were measured with the Learning Accomplishment Profile Diagnostic Third Edition (LAP-D); EF was measured with the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders (HTKS), and SR was measured with the Bracken School Readiness Assessment Third Edition (BSRA-3). All assessments were given pre- and post-intervention. All models controlled for participant age and socio-economic status (SES). Examining data pre-intervention, FMS but not EF uniquely predicted SR, explaining 46% of the variance. At post-intervention, both FMS and EF predicted SR, explaining 33% of the variance. These findings underscore the importance of screening both FMS and EF in preschoolers with EBP as they prepare to transition to kindergarten, as these domains both contribute to characterizing SR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developing Cognitive and Executive Functions Across Lifespan)

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21 pages, 3371 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metacognitive Prompts Influence 7- to 9-Year-Olds’ Executive Function at the Levels of Task Performance and Neural Processing

by Colin Drexler and Philip David Zelazo

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050644 - 9 May 2025

Viewed by 328

Abstract

To elucidate the role of metacognitive reflection in the development of children’s executive function (EF) skills, the current study examined relations among implicit and explicit forms of metacognition in 7- to 9-year-olds during performance based on the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS), while [...] Read more.

To elucidate the role of metacognitive reflection in the development of children’s executive function (EF) skills, the current study examined relations among implicit and explicit forms of metacognition in 7- to 9-year-olds during performance based on the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS), while experimentally manipulating the propensity to reflect on the task. Results showed that instructions to reflect led to improved task accuracy and better metacognitive control, but only in younger children, likely because older children were already engaging in reflection. Individual differences in trait mindfulness were related to a similarly reflective mode of responding, characterized by improved task accuracy and metacognitive control. In contrast, articulatory suppression impaired children’s task accuracy and metacognitive monitoring. Additionally, simply asking children to make metacognitive judgments without extra instructions decreased the amplitude of event-related potential (ERP) indices of error detection (the error-related negativity; ERN) and conflict detection (the N2). Finally, individual differences in trait anxiety were related to larger Pe amplitudes. Taken together, the current findings reinforce theoretical frameworks integrating metacognition and EF and highlight the shared influence of metacognitive reflection across multiple levels of analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developing Cognitive and Executive Functions Across Lifespan)

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30 pages, 3268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The First Digital Strategy-Based Method for Training of Executive Functions: Impact on Cognition and Behavioral and Emotional Regulation, and Academic Success in Children With and Without Psychosocial Risk

by David Cáceres-González, Teresa Rossignoli-Palomeque and María Vaíllo Rodríguez

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050633 - 6 May 2025

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Abstract

STap2Go is the first purely digital strategy-based method for the training of executive functions, making its evaluation relevant. This study assesses the effectiveness of this intervention in children with (at risk) and without (no-risk) psychosocial risk, which refers to socio-educational vulnerability, and examines [...] Read more.

STap2Go is the first purely digital strategy-based method for the training of executive functions, making its evaluation relevant. This study assesses the effectiveness of this intervention in children with (at risk) and without (no-risk) psychosocial risk, which refers to socio-educational vulnerability, and examines whether its impact differs between groups. A total of 124 children (9–12 years old) were randomly assigned to either an experimental or an active control group. Individual assessments and family questionnaires were administered (FDT, WISC-V, RIST, BRIEF-2). Both groups received a 12-week intervention. The experimental group showed significant improvements in executive functions, processing speed, IQ, academic performance, and emotional and behavioral regulation compared to the controls. Notably, IQ, metacognition, and working memory continued improving at follow-up, suggesting lasting effects. While both groups benefited, the effects were more pronounced in at-risk children, particularly in BRIEF-2 (Inhibition, Metacognition, Behavioral Regulation) and academic performance in mathematics and language. Moreover, the psychosocial risk control group showed a trend toward deterioration over time. The far transfer achieved thanks to digital strategy-based training seems to have a greater effect on at-risk children, and can be used to compensate for their difficulties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developing Cognitive and Executive Functions Across Lifespan)

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23 pages, 2751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Speech Production Development in Mandarin-Speaking Children: A Case of Lingual Stop Consonants

by Fangfang Li

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040516 - 13 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Lingual stops are among the earliest sounds acquired by young children, but the process of acquiring the temporal coordination of lingual gestures necessary for the production of stop consonants appears to be protracted. The current research aims to investigate the developmental process of [...] Read more.

Lingual stops are among the earliest sounds acquired by young children, but the process of acquiring the temporal coordination of lingual gestures necessary for the production of stop consonants appears to be protracted. The current research aims to investigate the developmental process of lingual stop consonants in 100 Mandarin-speaking 2- to 5-year-olds using the acoustic parameter voice onset time (VOT). Children were engaged in a word-repetition task and recorded while producing words that begin with /t/, /d/, /k/, and /g/. Results indicate well-established contrasts between /t/ and /d/ as well as between /k/ and /g/ by age 2. However, comparing with adults’ speech patterns, children’s speech productions are characterized by greater within-category dispersion and overlap, as well as smaller phoneme discriminability. Mandarin-speaking children also go through an “overshoot” stage by producing longer-than-adult VOT values, especially for voiceless aspirated stops /t/ and /k/. Lastly, unlike adults who exhibit gender-specific patterns in VOT, boys and girls do not show distinct patterns in their VOT by age 5. These results will be discussed in relation to children’s lingual motor control development and the organization of phonological and phonetic structures during the process of language acquisition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developing Cognitive and Executive Functions Across Lifespan)

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19 pages, 269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Regulation Intervention Impact on Turkish Children with Emotional and Behavioral Disorder Risks

by Gamze Apaydın and Çığıl Aykut

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040508 - 10 Apr 2025

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Abstract

This study examined the effect of a self-regulation intervention package prepared for preschool children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBDs) in Türkiye on children’s self-regulation skills, social skills, problem behaviors, relationships with teachers, and peer acceptance. Ten children, five at risk [...] Read more.

This study examined the effect of a self-regulation intervention package prepared for preschool children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBDs) in Türkiye on children’s self-regulation skills, social skills, problem behaviors, relationships with teachers, and peer acceptance. Ten children, five at risk of EBD and five with typical development (TD), participated in the study. This study used a single-group pretest-posttest design. The intervention lasted for eight weeks, two days a week. Follow-up data were collected three weeks after the intervention. It was found that the intervention package was effective in self-regulation, problem behavior, social skills, and peer acceptance variables of children at risk of EBD (z = −2.02, p < 0.05, r = 0.64) but not in student-teacher relationships (p > 0.05). In the follow-up, no significant changes were observed in any of the variables, except for problem behaviors. However, the levels were maintained (p > 0.05). Only the problem behavior variable showed a significant decrease compared to the post-test (z = −2.03, p < 0.05, r = 0.64). In addition, in the post- and follow-up tests, children at risk of EBD reached performance levels similar to those of TD children in terms of all variables (p > 0.05), which is essential evidence showing the effectiveness and social validity of the intervention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developing Cognitive and Executive Functions Across Lifespan)

15 pages, 276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Long COVID on Language Proficiency Across Different School Levels in Hong Kong

by Shebe S. Xu, Yixun Li, Wanyi Li, Catherine M. Capio, Winnie W. Y. Tso and Derwin K. C. Chan

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040432 - 28 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1325

Abstract

Long COVID, where symptoms persist after recovering from COVID-19, can affect cognitive functions like language. However, little is known about its impact on children’s language skills, especially across different school levels. This study investigated the impact of long COVID on language proficiency among [...] Read more.

Long COVID, where symptoms persist after recovering from COVID-19, can affect cognitive functions like language. However, little is known about its impact on children’s language skills, especially across different school levels. This study investigated the impact of long COVID on language proficiency among 1244 children (Asian; 53.5% boys) from kindergartens (N = 408, M_age = 4.42 ± 1.26 years), primary schools (N = 547, M_age = 9.69 ± 1.96 years), and secondary schools (N = 289, M_age = 14.97 ± 1.85 years) in Hong Kong. Language proficiency was assessed using the Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q), which measured speaking, listening, reading, and writing in both Chinese and English. Participants were categorized into three groups: long COVID, recovered from COVID-19, and no history of COVID-19. One-way and two-way ANOVAs were used to analyze the differences in language proficiency across these groups and school levels. Children with long COVID symptoms exhibited significantly lower overall language proficiency, particularly in speaking and listening, compared to those in the recovered and no-COVID groups. The effect was more pronounced among primary and secondary students, with secondary school students showing the most substantial deficits. No significant differences were found between the recovered and no-COVID groups. The results suggest that long COVID might have detrimental effects on children’s linguistic proficiency. The language development of older students who suffered from long COVID could benefit from receiving targeted educational and therapeutic interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developing Cognitive and Executive Functions Across Lifespan)

16 pages, 1188 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Working Memory as the Focus of the Bilingual Effect in Executive Functions

by Jiejia Chen, Zitong Li, Zhiheng Xiong and Guangyuan Liu

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020134 - 26 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1332

Abstract

The bilingual effect on executive functions (EFs) has garnered considerable attention, with most studies focusing on the visual domain and largely overlooking the auditory domain. Furthermore, research has predominantly concentrated on specific subcomponents of executive functions, with few studies systematically examining all three [...] Read more.

The bilingual effect on executive functions (EFs) has garnered considerable attention, with most studies focusing on the visual domain and largely overlooking the auditory domain. Furthermore, research has predominantly concentrated on specific subcomponents of executive functions, with few studies systematically examining all three key subcomponents. This raises two important questions: (a) Is the bilingual effect specific to certain modalities (modality-specific), or a more general phenomenon (modality-general)? (b) Is the bilingual effect concentrated in a specific component of executive functions (process-specific), or does it extend to all three components (process-general)? To explore these questions, this study recruited monolingual Chinese and bilingual Chinese–English participants, using matched visual and auditory Stroop, N-back, and task-switching tasks to assess inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in both groups. The results showed that, after controlling for variables like intelligence, socioeconomic status, and age, bilingualism significantly predicted performance in both auditory and visual working memory tasks, explaining 34% and 19% of the variance, respectively. However, no evidence was found to support a bilingual effect in inhibitory control or cognitive flexibility. In conclusion, these results suggest that bilingual effects are not only process-specific (affecting only working memory) but also modality-general (providing advantages in both visual and auditory modalities). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developing Cognitive and Executive Functions Across Lifespan)

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Review

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9 pages, 218 KiB

Open AccessReview

English-Learning Infants’ Developing Sound System Guides Their Early Word Learning

by Suzanne Curtin and Susan A. Graham

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 605; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050605 - 1 May 2025

Viewed by 267

Abstract

Children appear to acquire new words effortlessly from complex auditory input. However, this process is highly intricate, requiring the simultaneous integration of phonetic and phonemic details, prosodic cues, and grammatical structures. Furthermore, different components of a language’s sound system—such as phonemes, syllables, and [...] Read more.

Children appear to acquire new words effortlessly from complex auditory input. However, this process is highly intricate, requiring the simultaneous integration of phonetic and phonemic details, prosodic cues, and grammatical structures. Furthermore, different components of a language’s sound system—such as phonemes, syllables, and prosodic features—appear with different frequencies in the input and follow distinct patterns of distribution in speech. This article reviews research that illustrates how infants’ growing understanding of their native language sound system facilitates their acquisition of new words. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developing Cognitive and Executive Functions Across Lifespan)

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