Working Memory as the Focus of the Bilingual Effect in Executive Functions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Materials
2.2.1. Visual Stroop Task
2.2.2. Auditory Stroop Task
2.2.3. Visual N-Back Task
2.2.4. Auditory N-Back Task
2.2.5. Visual Task-Switching Paradigm
2.2.6. Auditory Task-Switching Paradigm
3. Results
3.1. Differences in EFs Between Bilingual and Monolingual Groups
3.2. Correlation Analysis: Bilingualism and Executive Functions
3.3. Multiple Regression Analyses
4. Discussion
4.1. Bilingual Experience Predicts Working Memory
4.2. Weak Relationship Between Bilingual Experience and Inhibitory Control and Cognitive Flexibility
4.3. Limitation
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Bilinguals M (SD) | Monolinguals M (SD) | |
---|---|---|
Age | 20.21 (1.34) | 19.96 (1.58) |
Gender | 4 males, 24 females | 5 males, 23 females |
SES | 3.23 (0.40) | 3.18 (0.39) |
Intelligence (out of 12) | 9.68 (1.66) | 9.36 (1.37) |
L2 AoA | 5.61 (1.66) | 7.04 (0.64) |
IELTS score (total) | 7.21 (0.36) | -- |
IELTS score (understanding) | 7.81 (0.75) | -- |
IELTS score (speaking) | 6.45 (0.48) | -- |
IELTS score (reading) | 7.71 (0.64) | -- |
IELTS score (writing) | 6.50 (0.45) | -- |
Self-reported L2 understanding proficiency (none: 1–fluent (native): 10) | 7.50 (1.30) | 1.50 (0.69) |
Self-reported L2 speaking proficiency (none: 1–fluent (native): 10) | 6.61 (0.96) | 1.43 (0.79) |
Self-reported L2 reading proficiency (none:1–fluent (native): 10) | 7.43 (1.29) | 1.82 (0.82) |
Self-reported L2 writing proficiency (none: 1–fluent (native): 10) | 6.79 (1.13) | 1.68 (0.86) |
L2 use at home (All L1: 0%–All L2: 100%) | 16.07% (20.65%) | -- |
L2 use in non-home situations (school) (All L1: 0%–All L2: 100%) | 41.07% (18.28%) | -- |
EFs Measures | Bilinguals M (SD) | Monolinguals M (SD) | p-Values |
---|---|---|---|
Inhibitory Control (response time in ms) | |||
Visual Stroop | |||
Congruent | 646 (72) | 614 (76) | 0.22 |
Incongruent | 703 (75) | 689 (89) | 0.53 |
Difference (Stroop effect) | 58 (45) | 76 (71) | 0.26 |
Auditory Stroop | |||
Congruent | 610 (57) | 639 (75) | 0.10 |
Incongruent | 648 (66) | 696 (86) | 0.03 |
Difference (Stroop effect) | 39 (32) | 56 (33) | 0.05 |
Working Memory (accuracy: proportion of hits minus proportion of false alarms) | |||
Visual N-back | |||
1-back | 0.88 (0.09) | 0.84 (0.09) | 0.10 |
2-back | 0.78 (0.11) | 0.67 (0.14) | 0.001 |
3-back | 0.63 (0.16) | 0.47 (0.15) | <0.001 |
Combined | 0.76 (0.12) | 0.66 (0.11) | 0.001 |
Auditory N-back | |||
1-back | 0.89 (0.06) | 0.86 (0.08) | 0.06 |
2-back | 0.78 (0.11) | 0.69 (0.13) | 0.01 |
3-back | 0.63 (0.16) | 0.47 (0.16) | <0.001 |
Combined | 0.77 (0.10) | 0.67 (0.11) | 0.001 |
Cognitive Flexibility (response time in ms) | |||
Visual Task-switching | |||
Stay | 813 (118) | 824 (109) | 0.71 |
Switch | 864 (122) | 881 (112) | 0.71 |
Difference (Switch costs) | 51 (32) | 56 (49) | 0.62 |
Auditory Task-switching | |||
Stay | 861 (98) | 952 (79) | <0.001 |
Switch | 919 (128) | 1036 (79) | <0.001 |
Difference (Switch costs) | 57 (48) | 84 (66) | 0.09 |
Predictors | Inhibitory Control (incongruent minus congruent RTs) | |||
Visual | Auditory | |||
β | t | β | t | |
Age | −0.14 | −0.83 | 0.21 | 1.34 |
SES | 0.25 | 1.77 | −0.06 | −0.42 |
IQ | 0.02 | 0.11 | −0.19 | −1.28 |
Bilingualism | −0.16 | −1.19 | −0.26 | −1.94 |
/adj. | 0.08/0.01 | 0.11/0.04 | ||
Predictors | Working Memory (proportion hits minus proportion false alarms) | |||
Visual | Auditory | |||
β | t | β | t | |
Age | 0.11 | 0.84 | −0.02 | −0.16 |
SES | −0.04 | −0.31 | 0.08 | 0.62 |
IQ | 0.42 | 3.32 ** | 0.24 | 1.77 |
Bilingualism | 0.37 | 3.35 ** | 0.39 | 3.20 ** |
/adj. | 0.39/0.34 | 0.25/0.19 | ||
Predictors | Cognitive Flexibility (switch minus stay RTs) | |||
Visual | Auditory | |||
β | t | β | t | |
Age | −0.13 | −0.82 | 0.03 | 0.22 |
SES | −0.15 | −1.06 | −0.05 | −0.30 |
IQ | 0.02 | 0.13 | −0.11 | −0.75 |
Bilingualism | −0.05 | −0.35 | −0.22 | −1.60 |
/adj. | 0.06/−0.02 | 0.07/−0.01 |
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Chen, J.; Li, Z.; Xiong, Z.; Liu, G. Working Memory as the Focus of the Bilingual Effect in Executive Functions. Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 134. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020134
Chen J, Li Z, Xiong Z, Liu G. Working Memory as the Focus of the Bilingual Effect in Executive Functions. Behavioral Sciences. 2025; 15(2):134. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020134
Chicago/Turabian StyleChen, Jiejia, Zitong Li, Zhiheng Xiong, and Guangyuan Liu. 2025. "Working Memory as the Focus of the Bilingual Effect in Executive Functions" Behavioral Sciences 15, no. 2: 134. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020134
APA StyleChen, J., Li, Z., Xiong, Z., & Liu, G. (2025). Working Memory as the Focus of the Bilingual Effect in Executive Functions. Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 134. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020134