Behavioral Sciences

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20 pages, 1025 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Language and Cognitive Development in Bimodal Bilingual Deaf Children in Hearing Families: Three Case Studies

by Diane Lillo-Martin, Deborah Chen Pichler and Elaine Gale

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 1124; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15081124 - 19 Aug 2025

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Abstract

We investigated aspects of language and cognitive development in three bimodal bilingual deaf children in hearing families. Some previous research finds cognitive delays for deaf children, which may be due to an early lack of access to language input. Studies of children having [...] Read more.

We investigated aspects of language and cognitive development in three bimodal bilingual deaf children in hearing families. Some previous research finds cognitive delays for deaf children, which may be due to an early lack of access to language input. Studies of children having strong early language access through parental use of American Sign Language (ASL) support the hypothesis that language delays are behind such cognitive delays. We ask whether hearing parents who are novice learners of ASL provide sufficient support for early language and cognitive development. The three case studies in this report used both ASL and English, with support for ASL development provided by our ASL specialist. We assessed the children’s general cognition, executive function, ASL vocabulary, English vocabulary, and overall language ability in both ASL and English. We found strong language development outcomes and correspondingly, age-appropriate cognitive development. These results are consistent with the conclusion that novice signer parents can support their children’s development as ASL-English bilinguals, establishing a strong foundation for further cognitive and linguistic growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language and Cognitive Development in Deaf Children)

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15 pages, 510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Language and Hidden Emotion Understanding in Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children: The Role of Mentalistic Verbs

by Alaitz Intxaustegi, Elisabet Serrat, Anna Amadó and Francesc Sidera

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 1106; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15081106 - 15 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The understanding of hidden emotions—situations in which individuals deliberately express an emotion different from what they genuinely feel—is a key skill in theory of mind (ToM) development. This ability allows children to reason about discrepancies between internal emotional states and external expressions and [...] Read more.

The understanding of hidden emotions—situations in which individuals deliberately express an emotion different from what they genuinely feel—is a key skill in theory of mind (ToM) development. This ability allows children to reason about discrepancies between internal emotional states and external expressions and is closely tied to linguistic development, particularly vocabulary related to mental states, which supports complex emotional reasoning. Children who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH), especially those born to hearing non-signing families and raised in oral language environments, may face challenges in early language exposure. This can impact the development of social and emotional skills, including the ability to understand hidden emotions. This study compares the understanding of hidden emotions in hearing children (n = 59) and DHH children (n = 44) aged 7–12 years. All children were educated in spoken language environments; none of the DHH participants had native exposure to sign language. Participants completed a hidden emotions task involving illustrated stories where a character showed a certain emotion in front of two observers, only one of whom was aware of the character’s true emotional state. The task assessed children’s understanding of the character’s emotional state as well as their ability to reason about the impact of hiding emotions on the beliefs of the observers. The results showed that the hearing children outperformed their DHH peers in understanding hidden emotions. This difference was not attributed to hearing status per se but to language use. Specifically, children’s spontaneous use of cognitive verbs (e.g., think or know) in their explanations predicted task performance across the groups, emphasizing the role of mental state language in emotional reasoning. These findings underscore the importance of early and accessible language exposure in supporting the emotional and social cognitive development of DHH children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language and Cognitive Development in Deaf Children)

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25 pages, 645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Variability in Language and Literacy Outcomes Among Deaf Elementary Students in a National Sample

by Kimberly Wolbers, Hannah Dostal and Kelsey Spurgin

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 1100; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15081100 - 13 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This study examined the literacy outcomes of 368 deaf elementary students in the United States, focusing on reading and writing performance and their connections with demographic and language variables. Standardized assessment data were analyzed from students in grades 3–6. Results indicated wide variability [...] Read more.

This study examined the literacy outcomes of 368 deaf elementary students in the United States, focusing on reading and writing performance and their connections with demographic and language variables. Standardized assessment data were analyzed from students in grades 3–6. Results indicated wide variability in reading and writing performance, from scores at a standard deviation above the mean to more than 3 below the mean. There were demonstrated disparities in mean literacy outcomes based on disability status. A strong positive correlation was found between reading and writing scores, suggesting interconnected development of literacy skills. Notably, writing outcomes were consistently higher than reading across analyses. Performance trajectories differed by grade, with literacy gaps widening over time. Gender, race, and hearing level explained 2–3% of the variance in literacy outcomes, while language proficiency (in ASL and/or spoken English) and phonological knowledge (fingerspelled and/or spoken) predicated 55–63% of the models. These findings highlight the need for early accessible language exposure and responsive literacy instruction aligned with deaf learners’ language strengths. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language and Cognitive Development in Deaf Children)

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20 pages, 821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Phoneme Discrimination in the Variability of Speech and Language Outcomes Among Children with Hearing Loss

by Kerry A. Walker, Jinal K. Shah, Lauren Alexander, Stacy Stiell, Christine Yoshinaga-Itano and Kristin M. Uhler

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 1072; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15081072 - 6 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This research compares speech discrimination abilities between 17 children who are hard-of-hearing (CHH) and 13 children with normal hearing (CNH), aged 9 to 36 months, using either a conditioned head turn (CHT) or condition play paradigm, for two phoneme pairs /ba-da/ and /sa-ʃa/. [...] Read more.

This research compares speech discrimination abilities between 17 children who are hard-of-hearing (CHH) and 13 children with normal hearing (CNH), aged 9 to 36 months, using either a conditioned head turn (CHT) or condition play paradigm, for two phoneme pairs /ba-da/ and /sa-ʃa/. As CHH were tested in the aided and unaided conditions, CNH were also tested on each phoneme contrast twice to control for learning effects. When speech discrimination abilities were compared between CHH, with hearing aids (HAs), and CNH, there were no statistical differences observed in performance on stop consonant discrimination, but a significant statistical difference was observed for fricative discrimination performance. Among CHH, significant benefits were observed for /ba-da/ speech discrimination while wearing HAs, compared to the no HA condition. All CHH were early-identified, early amplified, and were enrolled in parent-centered early intervention services. Under these conditions, CHH demonstrated the ability to discriminate speech comparable to CNH. Additionally, repeated testing within 1-month did not result in a change in speech discrimination scores, indicating good test–retest reliability of speech discrimination scores. Finally, this research explored the question of infant/toddler listening fatigue in the behavioral speech discrimination task. The CHT paradigm included returning to a contrast (i.e., /a-i/) previously shown to be easier for both CHH and CNH to discriminate to examine if failure to discriminate /ba-da/ or /sa-ʃa/ was due to listening fatigue or off-task behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language and Cognitive Development in Deaf Children)

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17 pages, 506 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Filled Pauses Across Multiple Discourse Contexts in Children Who Are Hard of Hearing and Children with Typical Hearing

by Charlotte Hilker, Jacob J. Oleson, Mariia Tertyshnaia, Ryan W. McCreery and Elizabeth A. Walker

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 1053; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15081053 - 4 Aug 2025

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Abstract

Filled pauses are thought to be reflections of linguistic processes (e.g., lexical retrieval, speech planning and execution). Uh may be a self-directed cue for when a speaker needs more time to retrieve lexical–semantic representations, whereas um serves as a listener-directed, pragmatic cue. The [...] Read more.

Filled pauses are thought to be reflections of linguistic processes (e.g., lexical retrieval, speech planning and execution). Uh may be a self-directed cue for when a speaker needs more time to retrieve lexical–semantic representations, whereas um serves as a listener-directed, pragmatic cue. The use of filled pauses has not been examined in children who are hard of hearing (CHH). Participants included 68 CHH and 33 children with typical hearing (CTH). Participants engaged in conversations, expository discourse, and fable retells. We analyzed filled pauses as a function of hearing status and discourse contexts and evaluated the relationship between filled pauses and language ability. CHH produced uh across discourse contexts more often than their hearing peers. CHH did not differ in their use of um relative to CTH. Both um and uh were used more often in conversational samples compared to other types of discourse. Spearman’s correlations did not show any significant associations between the rate of filled pauses and standardized language scores. These results indicate that CHH produces uh more often than CTH, suggesting that they may have difficulty retrieving lexical–semantic items during ongoing speech. This information may be useful for interventionists who are collecting language samples during assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language and Cognitive Development in Deaf Children)

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14 pages, 701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Early Access to Sign Language Boosts the Development of Serial Working Memory in Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children

by Brennan P. Terhune-Cotter and Matthew W. G. Dye

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 919; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070919 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 421

Abstract

Deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children are often reported to show deficits on working memory (WM) tasks. These deficits are often characterized as contributing to their struggles to acquire spoken language. Here we report a longitudinal study of a large (N = 103) sample [...] Read more.

Deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children are often reported to show deficits on working memory (WM) tasks. These deficits are often characterized as contributing to their struggles to acquire spoken language. Here we report a longitudinal study of a large (N = 103) sample of DHH children who acquired American Sign Language (ASL) as their first language. Using an n-back working memory task, we show significant growth in WM performance across the 7–13-year-old age range. Furthermore, we show that children with early access to ASL from their DHH parents demonstrate faster WM growth and that this group difference is mediated by ASL receptive skills. The data suggest the important role of early access to perceivable natural language in promoting typical WM growth during the middle school years. We conclude that the acquisition of a natural visual–gestural language is sufficient to support the development of WM in DHH children. Further research is required to determine how the timing and quality of ASL exposure may play a role, or whether the effects are driven by acquisition-related corollaries, such as parent–child interactions and maternal stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language and Cognitive Development in Deaf Children)

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Review

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29 pages, 1370 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Scoping Review of Literacy Interventions Using Signed Languages for School-Age Deaf Students

by Hannah M. Dostal, Jessica A. Scott, Marissa D. Chappell and Christopher Black

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 1104; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15081104 - 14 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This scoping review systematically analyzes the nature and implications of existing research on literacy and literacy interventions that use a signed language among deaf students from preschool through college. We identified the findings associated with the use of sign languages on literacy outcomes [...] Read more.

This scoping review systematically analyzes the nature and implications of existing research on literacy and literacy interventions that use a signed language among deaf students from preschool through college. We identified the findings associated with the use of sign languages on literacy outcomes for deaf students, and we analyzed the scope of the identified studies to uncover potential gaps in the research base. Fifteen empirical studies published between 2014 and 2025 met the inclusion criteria, featuring participants across a range of educational levels. Methodologies varied, with qualitative and group comparison designs most common. Studies addressed key literacy components (i.e., phonological awareness, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and composition) and findings indicate that integrating sign language into literacy instruction enhances language access and supports literacy learning. The results highlight the importance of responsive, multimodal instruction and point to the need for further research to fill identified gaps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language and Cognitive Development in Deaf Children)

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Other

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32 pages, 1320 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Theory of Mind Development in Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Individuals: A Systematic Review

by Leire Martín, Mario Figueroa, Beatriz de Diego-Lázaro, Raquel Balboa-Castells and Gary Morgan

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15081065 - 6 Aug 2025

Viewed by 561

Abstract

Theory of Mind (ToM) is a construct that includes a range of connected abilities linked to the understanding of others’ mental states. During the last three decades, ToM development has been studied extensively in deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) individuals and performances [...] Read more.

Theory of Mind (ToM) is a construct that includes a range of connected abilities linked to the understanding of others’ mental states. During the last three decades, ToM development has been studied extensively in deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) individuals and performances compared to the typically hearing (TH) population. Given the advances in the early diagnosis of deafness, interventions, and hearing devices over this period, variations in task performance among DHH participants might have been reduced. The current systematic review aims to synthesize all studies of ToM in DHH individuals and answer the following question: Do DHH individuals (Population), compared to a control sample of TH and/or among themselves (Comparator), in an assessment of ToM (Intervention), have differentiated results (Outcome)? After a search of the literature, 97 papers were included. We found that, in general, TH participants outperformed their DHH peers in ToM measures; however, there was a wide range of results. Explanations for this variability included the quality of early interactions and early exposure to both signed and spoken language. The review also indicates that the understanding of false belief was the most studied component within ToM, while other components, such as understanding intention and irony, require further research. Implications of these findings for clinical practice are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language and Cognitive Development in Deaf Children)

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