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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2025) | Viewed by 19434

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Beatrice Aruanno

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56122 Pisa, Italy
Interests: extended reality; human–computer interaction; natural user interfaces; intelligent virtual agents.

Prof. Dr. Monica Bordegoni

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milano, Italy
Interests: virtual and augmented reality; user experience design; virtual and physical prototyping; human–computer interaction; usability

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The fields of human–computer interaction (HCI) and extended reality (XR) are closely connected, given that they both focus on technologies that enhance interactions between humans, computers, and virtual environments, thereby fostering numerous societally beneficial applications. HCI is dedicated to refining interfaces by innovating in terms of both software and hardware designs and incorporating cutting-edge technologies such as machine learning, gesture recognition, and biosignal processing. Advancements in HCI drive not only technological progress but also facilitate seamless interactions in both real and virtual settings, enhancing the extended reality experience overall. XR, encompassing virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR), blurs the boundaries between the real and virtual worlds, creating a spectrum of applications in numerous fields.

This Special Issue invites contributions that explore pioneering research at the intersection of HCI and virtual environments, and which shape the evolving landscape of these dynamic fields.

Topics include, but are not limited to:

HCI and XR Innovations: novel approaches in software and hardware design, gesture recognition, behavioral analytics, virtual assistants, and wearable interfaces;
Virtual Environments: research on XR technologies, spanning diverse fields such as education, healthcare, entertainment, and architecture;
User Experience (UX): a focus on enhancing UX in virtual environments through studies on interaction, interface design, and the field’s psychological aspects;
Technological Advancements: highlighting progress in supporting technologies, including machine learning, biometric sensing, haptics, and sensory feedback;
Applications and Impact: exploration of real-world applications and impact assessments of HCI and XR;
Ethical Considerations: discussions on ethical implications, addressing issues such as accessibility, responsible development, and the use of immersive technologies.

Dr. Beatrice Aruanno
Prof. Dr. Monica Bordegoni
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

extended reality
human–computer interaction
user experience
digital environments
immersive technologies
natural user interfaces

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 2982 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of an Emotional Embodied Conversational Agent and the Evaluation of the Effect of Response Delay on User Impression

by Simon Christophe Jolibois, Akinori Ito and Takashi Nose

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4256; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084256 - 11 Apr 2025

Viewed by 609

Abstract

Embodied conversational agents (ECAs) are autonomous interaction interfaces designed to communicate with humans. This study investigates the impact of response delays and emotional facial expressions of ECAs on user perception and engagement. The motivation for this study stems from the growing integration of ECAs in various sectors, where their ability to mimic human-like interactions significantly enhances user experience. To this end, we developed an ECA with multimodal emotion recognition, both with voice and facial feature recognition and emotional facial expressions of the agent avatar. The system generates answers in real time based on media content. The development was supported by a case study of artwork images with the agent playing the role of a museum curator, where the user asks the agent for information on the artwork. We evaluated the developed system in two aspects. First, we investigated how the delay in an agent’s responses influences user satisfaction and perception. Secondly, we explored the role of emotion in an ECA’s face in shaping the user’s perception of responsiveness. The results showed that the longer response delay negatively impacted the user’s perception of responsiveness when the ECA did not express emotion, while the emotional expression improved the responsiveness perception. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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16 pages, 1949 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual Reality as an Innovative Tool for Numerosity Perception

by Beatrice Aruanno, Giovanni Anobile, Armando Viviano Razionale, Monica Bordegoni and Guido Marco Cicchini

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 3976; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073976 - 3 Apr 2025

Viewed by 237

Abstract

Numeracy, the ability to use basic mathematical skills in everyday life, is essential in modern society. Recent studies have shown a connection between numeracy and visual numerosity perception, yet traditional 2D screen-based assessment methods often lack ecological validity and participant engagement. This study evaluates the viability of conducting numerosity estimation tasks in virtual reality (VR) and to determine whether hallmarks of numerosity processing, typically observed in laboratory settings, can be replicated in immersive environments. Six participants completed a psychophysical evaluation in VR, comparing the numerosity of visual stimuli consisting of two sets of spheres. The VR experiment successfully replicated two distinctive patterns found in traditional psychophysical studies: increased precision and decreased response times at high numerosities. Specifically, Weber fractions drop by approximately a factor of two, with values ranging from ~15% for low and intermediate conditions to ~8% in high numerosities, and response times decreases from ~663 ms for low numerosities to ~593 ms for high numerosities. These findings highlight that VR can be effectively used for numerosity estimation tasks, providing a controlled and immersive environment that traditional methods cannot achieve, while significantly expanding methodological possibilities in psychophysical research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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34 pages, 7840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Context-Based Model for Browsing the Web Through Voice

by Citlalli Selene Avalos Montiel, José G. Rodríguez García, Sonia Mendoza and Dominique Decouchant

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 3400; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063400 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 179

Abstract

To find useful information on the Web, a user must define the search according to their interests, then they must select and analyze one or more web pages, and finally they must decide which content is most useful to them. This process requires visual attention, certain skills, and interaction with the web browser through keyboards, screens, or mice. Web browsing can be difficult for people who have some disability or lack of knowledge in the use of information and communications technology, causing them to stop this activity. This paper proposes a model to facilitate web browsing and contribute to reducing the digital divide among the population. The model input is the user’s request in natural language using voice, and the output, presented in sound, text, or graphic format, is the most suitable content that corresponds to the user’s interests. First, a content search is performed based on the user’s context. Subsequently, among the results obtained, the most appropriate for the user are identified by analyzing the context of web pages. We implemented a prototype, which was evaluated by users. The results show that it reached an acceptable usability level and that 84.75% of users obtained relevant results in their interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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22 pages, 4886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Fuzzy-Control Anti-Cybersickness Intelligent System (FCACIS) Designed for Multiple Inducing Factors in a 3D Virtual Store

by Cheng-Li Liu and Shiaw-Tsyr Uang

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 11609; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411609 - 12 Dec 2024

Viewed by 636

Abstract

As online shopping has increased, the business models of online stores have diversified. When consumers cannot experience an actual product, merchants will promote products through a display to attract customers. Virtual reality (VR) provides an immersive platform for consumers to interact with virtual scenarios. Unfortunately, cybersickness remains a problem in VR. The uncomfortable effects of VR hinder its commercial expansion and the broader adoption of 3D virtual stores. Cybersickness has many causes, including personal characteristics, hardware interfaces, and operation behavior. This study develops a fuzzy-control anti-cybersickness intelligent system (FCACIS) with these factors dynamically and actively. The system retrieves the operation value and inferences the cybersickness symptom value (CSSV). When the CSSV exceeds the alarm value, a dialog mode is introduced to remind users to be aware of possible cybersickness. If the CSSV continues to increase, a cybersickness defense mechanism is activated, such as decreasing the field of view and freezing the screen. The experimental results revealed a significant difference in SSQ scores between subjects who navigated a 3D virtual store with and without the FCACIS. The SSQ scores of subjects with the FCACIS (SSQ = 20.570) were significantly lower than those of subjects without the FCACIS (SSQ = 32.880). The FCACIS effectively alleviated cybersickness for subjects over 40 years old. Additionally, the FCACIS effectively slowed the onset of cybersickness in men and women. The anti-cybersickness effect of the FCACIS on flat-panel displays was greater than that on HMDs. The symptoms of cybersickness for a 3DOF controller were also reduced. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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23 pages, 41330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Free-Hand Input and Interaction in Virtual Reality Using a Custom Force-Based Digital Thimble

by Tafadzwa Joseph Dube and Ahmed Sabbir Arif

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 11018; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311018 - 27 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1211

Abstract

This article presents the Digital Thimble, an index-finger-wearable device designed for free-hand interactions in virtual reality (VR) by varying the touch contact force on a surface. It contains an optical mouse sensor for tracking and a pressure sensor for detecting contact force. A Fitts’ law study compared the Digital Thimble with a commercial finger mouse and a VR controller using both on-press and on-release selection methods. The results showed that the finger mouse provided higher throughput (3.11 bps) and faster speed (1258 ms) compared to the VR controller (2.89 bps; 1327 ms) and the Digital Thimble (2.61 bps; 1487 ms). Further evaluation in sorting and teleportation tasks demonstrated that the Digital Thimble delivered better accuracy and precision. Participants favored the Digital Thimble for its comfort and convenience, highlighting its potential as a user-friendly VR input device. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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15 pages, 282 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applicability of Virtual Excursions in Technical Subjects Teaching

by Peter Kuna, Alena Hašková and Ľuboš Borza

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(19), 9120; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14199120 - 9 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1110

Abstract

During the covid pandemic period of 2019–2020, teaching was carried out via homeschooling, and secondary vocational schools had to deal with the problem of ensuring the implementation of excursions, which were a part of their apprentices’ practical training. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, a group of people at Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra (Slovakia) came up with a plan to develop some virtual excursions to help secondary vocational schools replace field trips with their virtual counterparts. In the paper, the authors describe the results of the stated intention: two virtual excursions aimed at the production and processing of metal products and verification of their applicability in educational practice based on a qualitative analysis of expert opinions collected by means of individually led semi-structured interviews. The conclusions of the analysis confirm the high degree of usability of the created excursions and verify some positive impacts of the implementation of virtual excursions into the teaching practice, e.g., it increased student motivation to learn, increased student interest in lesson content, increased student activity, and intensified study activities overall, including various forms of self-study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

13 pages, 6056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Impact of Virtual Reality on Painting Appreciation

by Chih-Long Lin and Yen-Yu Kang

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(16), 7335; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14167335 - 20 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1485

Abstract

This study aimed to explore the experience of painting appreciation through desktop virtual reality (VR) and a heads-up display (HTC Vive) and compare it with those of a physical painting and album. The study included 52 university students who viewed paintings in all four environments and answered a subjective feelings questionnaire. The results show that the physical paintings generated more positive emotions, such as pleasure, relaxation, and calmness, than virtual paintings. Additionally, the physical paintings were perceived and evaluated as more original, attractive, and valuable. Moreover, among the virtual paintings, the landscape paintings were more popular than abstract ones, whereas among the physical paintings, the abstract paintings were preferred. The head-mounted display made the participants feel uncertain about moving in the physical environment, and the transmission line connecting it to the computer limited their movements. Therefore, it is necessary to enhance the quality and ease of interactions in VR environments to make virtual paintings appear as impressive as physical ones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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16 pages, 2264 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing User Experience in Virtual Museums: Impact of Finger Vibrotactile Feedback

by Ravichandran Gayathri and Sanghun Nam

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(15), 6593; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156593 - 28 Jul 2024

Viewed by 2097

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive visual and auditory experiences, transporting users to alternate realities. However, existing VR systems lack realistic haptic feedback mechanisms, resulting in unsatisfactory immersive experiences. In this study, we developed and tested a haptic glove that simulates realistic tactile sensations, enhancing user interaction with virtual artifacts. Our research investigates the impact of finger-specific vibrotactile feedback (FSVF) on user experience in virtual museum environments. Using a mixed-methods approach, 30 participants engaged in object-manipulation tasks in three settings: no haptic feedback, standard controller feedback, and vibrotactile glove feedback. The findings demonstrate that the vibrotactile glove approach considerably improves user accuracy, efficiency, immersion, and satisfaction compared with other traditional interaction methods. Participants completed tasks more accurately and quickly with the glove, reporting high levels of engagement and immersion. The results highlight the potential of advanced haptic feedback in transforming virtual reality technology, particularly for educational and cultural applications. Further, they provide valuable insights for designing and applying future haptic technology in immersive environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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16 pages, 3117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Visual Disturbances on the Trend Changes of COP Displacement Courses Using Stock Exchange Indices

by Piotr Wodarski, Marta Chmura and Jacek Jurkojć

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4953; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114953 - 6 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1211

Abstract

This work aims to define a strategy for maintaining a vertical posture of the human body under conditions of conflicting sensory stimuli using a method of trend change analysis. The investigations involved 28 healthy individuals (13 females, 15 males, average age = 21, SD = 1.3 years). Measurements were conducted with eyes opened and closed and in the virtual environment with two sceneries oscillating at two frequencies. Values in the time domain were calculated—the mean center of pressure (COP) velocity and movement range in the AP direction—as well as values based on the moving average convergence divergence (MACD) computational algorithm—the trend change index (TCI), MACD_dT, MACD_dS, and MACD_dV. After dividing the analysis into distinct time periods, an increase in TCI values was identified in the oscillating scenery at 0.7 and 1.4 Hz during the 0.5–1 and 0.2–0.5 s time periods, respectively. Statistically significant differences were observed between measurements with an oscillation frequency of 0.7 Hz and those with an oscillation frequency of 1.4 Hz during the 0.2–0.5 s and 0.5–1 s periods. The use of stock exchange indices in the assessment of the ability to keep a stable body posture supplements and extends standard analyses in the time and frequency domains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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26 pages, 938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Visual and Haptic Guidance for Enhancing Target Search Performance in Dual-Task Settings

by Gang Wang, Hung-Hsiang Wang and Gang Ren

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4650; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114650 - 28 May 2024

Viewed by 1639

Abstract

In complex environments, users frequently need to manage multiple tasks simultaneously, which poses significant challenges for user interface design. For instance, when driving, users must maintain continuous visual attention on the road ahead while also monitoring rearview mirrors and performing shoulder checks. These multitasking scenarios present substantial design challenges in effectively guiding users. To address these challenges, we focus on investigating and designing visual and haptic guidance systems to augment users’ performance. We initially propose the use of visual guidance, specifically employing a dynamic arrow as a guidance technique. Our evaluation shows that dynamic arrows significantly expedite both reaction and selection times. We further introduce and evaluate haptic feedback, which users perceive as more salient than visual guidance, leading to quicker responses when switching from primary to secondary tasks. This allows users to maintain visual attention on the primary task while simultaneously responding effectively to haptic cues. Our findings suggest that multimodal guidance, especially haptic guidance, can enhance both reaction time and user experience in dual-task environments, offering promising practical implications and guidelines for designing more user-friendly interfaces and systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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Review

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20 pages, 1074 KiB

Open AccessReview

High-Functioning Autism and Virtual Reality Applications: A Scoping Review

by Mattia Chiappini, Carla Dei, Ettore Micheletti, Emilia Biffi and Fabio Alexander Storm

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(7), 3132; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14073132 - 8 Apr 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5619

Abstract

In recent years, the number of applications of virtual reality (VR) for the Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) population has increased and has become one of the most suitable tools to address the psychological needs of these individuals. The present scoping review aims to provide a literature mapping of experimental studies that have used immersive and semi-immersive VR for assessments or interventions specifically addressing high-functioning autism. A total of 23 papers were included and analyzed following PRISMA guidelines. The identified studies concerned social skills (11 papers), eye gaze and joint attention (3 papers), motor learning (3 papers), job training (2 papers), and other aims or rationales (4 papers). The evidence shows that, despite the intellectual potential of high-functioning ASD individuals, little research has been conducted to provide interventions that offer concrete training to improve their adaptive functioning. In addition, the percentage of individuals below 18 years of age is representative of half of the included studies, so aiming future studies at the early stages of development might be an asset in preparing the next generation of young adults to cope with age-related challenges, as early assessments and interventions are more likely to produce major long-term effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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Other

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15 pages, 653 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Innovative Approaches to Eating Disorders Treatment: A Systematic Review on the Effectiveness of Virtual Reality

by Mariona Arrom-Llabrés, María Teresa Mendoza-Medialdea and José Gutiérrez-Maldonado

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 3334; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063334 - 18 Mar 2025

Viewed by 437

Abstract

This systematic review investigates the effectiveness of virtual reality as a tool in the treatment of eating disorders, either alone or in combination with other therapies. The limitations of traditional therapies, along with the high prevalence of eating disorders, have driven research into the use of virtual reality techniques as a new approach to treatment. The review includes studies published between November 2021 and February 2025, focusing on virtual reality-based interventions for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and body image disturbances. A total of 228 articles were screened, with eight meeting the inclusion criteria. The studies show that virtual reality interventions, particularly when combined with other therapeutic techniques, can significantly improve psychological and behavioral factors related to eating disorders. Virtual reality exposure and inhibitory control training were the main interventions. The results indicate that virtual reality exposure is effective in reducing body concerns, food anxiety, and attentional bias, while inhibitory control training shows mixed results in binge eating disorder treatment. Despite the promising findings, limitations such as small sample sizes and lack of follow-up highlight the need for further research. Future studies should aim to include larger, more diverse samples and explore the long-term effectiveness of the interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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17 pages, 21133 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

V-Cockpit: A Platform for the Design, Testing, and Validation of Car Infotainment Systems through Virtual Reality

by Michela Papandrea, Achille Peternier, Diego Frei, Nicolò La Porta, Mirko Gelsomini, Daniele Allegri and Tiziano Leidi

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(18), 8160; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188160 - 11 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1856

Abstract

The V-Cockpit platform aims to transform the design, testing, and validation of car infotainment systems from the physical realm to virtual reality. It uniquely integrates various aspects of the creative phases—from conceptualization to evaluation—streamlining the process and reducing time and costs compared to traditional methods that focus on individual activities and rely heavily on physical prototyping. This technical note provides a comprehensive overview of the main platform’s aspects, highlighting the integration of hardware and behavioral analysis algorithms to improve user experience and detect potential design flaws early on. The V-Cockpit platform, composed of six key components, leverages virtual reality and digital twins, promising significant cost savings and enhanced design efficiency. This work details the system architecture, implementation, and first benefits of this innovative approach through the analysis of three use cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Computer Interaction and Virtual Environments)

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