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Applied Sciences
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Running Biomechanics: From Commuting to Elite
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Running Biomechanics: From Commuting to Elite

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Biosciences and Bioengineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 August 2023) | Viewed by 17555

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Iain Hunter

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Exercise Sciences, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
Interests: biomechanics of distance running related to performance and injury

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue, Running Biomechanics: from Commuting to Elite, aims to cover the latest developments in running mechanics related to performance and injury. This Special Issue will describe recent research and developments in how runners of all levels can train, perform, and choose footwear for improved performance and injury prevention. Recent work shows exciting developments that are ready to be built upon.

The objective of this Special Issue is to present some research building upon all aspects of performance and injury with special focuses on 1) recent developments in footwear and 2) running mechanics. We expect these articles to add to the current knowledge available to help runners improve their training and performance.

Prof. Dr. Iain Hunter
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • running mechanics
  • footwear
  • marathon
  • performance
  • racing
  • energy cost
  • kinematics
  • kinetics

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 3395 KiB  
Article
The Effects of 5 km Interval Running on the Anterior Cruciate Ligament Strain and Biomechanical Characteristic of the Knee Joint: Simulation and Principal Component Analysis
by Enze Shao, Qichang Mei, Tongjun Ye, Bálint Kovács, Julien S. Baker, Wei Liu and Yaodong Gu
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(11), 6760; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116760 - 02 Jun 2023
Viewed by 1374
Abstract
Interval running methodologies simulate competition and training conditions, with the aim of enhancing an athletes’ ability to cope with constant deceleration, acceleration, and sudden changes in direction, as associated athletic and performance challenges. Fifteen male athletes were recruited in this study, in which [...] Read more.
Interval running methodologies simulate competition and training conditions, with the aim of enhancing an athletes’ ability to cope with constant deceleration, acceleration, and sudden changes in direction, as associated athletic and performance challenges. Fifteen male athletes were recruited in this study, in which the anterior cruciate ligament was modeled as a nonlinear elastic passive soft tissue in OpenSim 4.2. Participants completed 5 km interval running training on a treadmill. Before and after the interval running, kinematics, kinetics, and electromyography activity of the lower leg during the cutting maneuvers were collected simultaneously. After running training, the anterior cruciate ligament strain demonstrated a decreasing trend when performing unexpected cutting maneuvers. Principal component analysis showed significant differences in knee moments during abduction-adduction; knee angles in flexion-extension, external-internal rotation, and abduction-adduction, as well as knee contact forces in the sagittal and coronal planes. The findings of the study highlight that athletes generate greater adduction moment at the onset of the cut, followed by greater abduction moment towards the end of the cut, which may have a substantial impact on the anterior cruciate ligament loading. Furthermore, athletes need to be mindful of changes in coronal plane contact forces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Running Biomechanics: From Commuting to Elite)
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9 pages, 615 KiB  
Article
Footstrike Pattern and Cadence of the Marathon Athletes at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games
by Javier Gamez-Paya, Arian Ramón Aladro-Gonzalvo, Diana Gallego-de Marcos, Carlos Villarón-Casales and José Luis Lopez-del Amo
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(11), 6620; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116620 - 30 May 2023
Viewed by 1946
Abstract
Background: The footstrike pattern and cadence are two crucial variables associated with sports performance and injury risks. This study aimed to analyze the footstrike pattern and cadence of male elite athletes who participated in the Tokyo Olympic Games marathon. Methods: Two independent researchers [...] Read more.
Background: The footstrike pattern and cadence are two crucial variables associated with sports performance and injury risks. This study aimed to analyze the footstrike pattern and cadence of male elite athletes who participated in the Tokyo Olympic Games marathon. Methods: Two independent researchers examined the footstrike pattern of the first 51 participants at the 5 km mark of the race. Additionally, the cadences of the top eight athletes (finalists) were analyzed in three different segments of the race (10–20 km, 20–30 km, and 30–40 km). Descriptive statistics were used to present the main variables, and a repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to explore cadence differences among race sections (p < 0.05). Results: The mean cadence of the eight finalists was 185.5 steps per minute (SD ± 5.1), and no significant differences were observed among race sections. The most common footstrike pattern was midfoot strike, followed by rearfoot strike, then forefoot strike. The cadence results are consistent with previous studies examining elite athletes, indicating higher values compared with research involving recreational runners. Conclusions: Most elite marathon athletes adopt a non-rearfoot strike pattern and maintain a cadence of more than 185 steps per minute. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Running Biomechanics: From Commuting to Elite)
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10 pages, 805 KiB  
Article
Association of Ground Reaction Force Measurements in Runners with Symptomatic Iliotibial Band Friction Syndrome: A Cross-Sectional Study
by José Roberto de Souza Júnior, Molly M. Bradach, Logan W. Gaudette and Adam S. Tenforde
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(6), 3441; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13063441 - 08 Mar 2023
Viewed by 1092
Abstract
Iliotibial band syndrome (ITBS) is a common running related injury. While previous studies have evaluated the relationship between biomechanical variables and ITBS, most have found limited evidence, particularly with measures related to ground reaction force (GRF). The purpose of this study was to [...] Read more.
Iliotibial band syndrome (ITBS) is a common running related injury. While previous studies have evaluated the relationship between biomechanical variables and ITBS, most have found limited evidence, particularly with measures related to ground reaction force (GRF). The purpose of this study was to use a classification and regression tree (CART) analysis to determine whether the combination of GRF measures would be strongly associated in runners with ITBS. A cross-sectional study was performed at an outpatient center focused on running injuries. A convenience sample of 52 runners with ITBS, assessed between September 2012 and July 2022, were evaluated for eligibility, from which, 30 rearfoot strike runners with ITBS and no secondary running-related injuries were selected. Injured runners were matched to 30 healthy controls from a normative database. Each ran on an instrumented treadmill at a self-selected speed. GRF variables were calculated, including peak GRFs, loading rates, and impulses. CART analysis was performed to identify interactions between GRF data and runners with ITBS. An ROC curve was executed, to determine the accuracy of the model. Posterior GRF impulse (PGRFI), anterior GRF (AGRFI), peak anterior GRF (PAGRF), and vertical stiffness at initial loading (VSIL) all emerged as variables associated with ITBS in the CART analysis. The model was able to correctly identify 25 (83.3%) runners with ITBS and 25 (83.3%) controls. The area under the ROC curve (accuracy) was 0.87 (95% CI, 0.77–0.96; SE, 0.04; p < 0.001). In conclusion, interactions between GRF variables were associated with ITBS in runners. The best classification included interactions between PGRFI, AGRFI, AGRFP, and VSIL, using specific cut-off values. Loading rates were not independently associated with ITBS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Running Biomechanics: From Commuting to Elite)
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15 pages, 1940 KiB  
Article
Inter-Session Repeatability of Marker-Less Motion Capture of Treadmill Running Gait
by Matthew F. Moran, Isabella C. Rogler and Justin C. Wager
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(3), 1702; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031702 - 29 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2324
Abstract
Twenty-one experienced runners completed three treadmill running sessions on different days. Each session consisted of three consecutive 2 min trials at self-selected speeds (RPE = 3, 5, and 7). An eight-camera marker-less motion capture system and instrumented pressure treadmill (TM) collected data over [...] Read more.
Twenty-one experienced runners completed three treadmill running sessions on different days. Each session consisted of three consecutive 2 min trials at self-selected speeds (RPE = 3, 5, and 7). An eight-camera marker-less motion capture system and instrumented pressure treadmill (TM) collected data over the final ~25 s at each speed. Lower extremity joint angles (ankle, knee, and hip) and segmental angles (pelvis and trunk) were computed for each trial with foot contact and toe off being kinematically determined. Spatiotemporal metrics (ground contact time, step length, and cadence) were measured via TM and compared to their kinematically derived counterparts. All spatiotemporal metrics demonstrated excellent agreement (ICCs > 0.98). Both intra-trial and inter-session variability, averaged across the entire running cycle, for all lower extremity joint angles in all planes were low (intra-trial: sagittal = 2.0°, frontal = 1.2°, and transverse = 1.9°; inter-session: sagittal = 1.4°, frontal = 0.8°, and transverse = 1.3°). Discrete measures of lower extremity joint and segmental angles were evaluated for inter-session reliability at foot contact, toe off, and peak value during the stance phase. On average, discrete measures demonstrated good reliability (ICCsagittal = 0.85, ICCfrontal = 0.83, and ICCtransverse = 0.77) with average standard error of measurement < 1°. Marker-less motion capture reliably measured treadmill running kinematics in a group of runners demonstrating heterogenous foot strike patterns (13 rearfoot strike and 8 non-rearfoot strike) across a range of speeds (2.67–4.44 m/s). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Running Biomechanics: From Commuting to Elite)
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8 pages, 779 KiB  
Communication
Determinants of Top Speed Sprinting: Minimum Requirements for Maximum Velocity
by Kenneth P. Clark
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(16), 8289; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12168289 - 19 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2870
Abstract
Faster top sprinting speeds require shorter ground contact times, larger vertical forces, and greater thigh angular velocities and accelerations. Here, a framework using fundamental kinematic and kinetic relationships is presented that explores the effect of body dimensions on these mechanical determinants of sprinting [...] Read more.
Faster top sprinting speeds require shorter ground contact times, larger vertical forces, and greater thigh angular velocities and accelerations. Here, a framework using fundamental kinematic and kinetic relationships is presented that explores the effect of body dimensions on these mechanical determinants of sprinting performance. The analysis is applied to three hypothetical runners of different leg lengths to illustrate how these mechanical determinants of speed vary with body dimensions. Specific attention is focused on how the following variables scale with leg length and top speed: ground contact time, step rate, step length, ratio of step length to leg length, ratio of vertical force to body weight, total thigh range of motion, average thigh angular velocity, and maximum thigh angular acceleration. The analysis highlights the inherent biological tradeoffs that interplay to govern the optimal dimensions for sprinting speed and underscores that accounting for leg length may facilitate interpretation in future investigations examining the relationship between these mechanical variables and top speed. Furthermore, for athletes with given body dimensions and sprinting performance goals, this framework could help to establish the minimum requirements for maximum velocity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Running Biomechanics: From Commuting to Elite)
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11 pages, 797 KiB  
Article
Do Carbon-Plated Running Shoes with Different Characteristics Influence Physiological and Biomechanical Variables during a 10 km Treadmill Run?
by Pierre Kiesewetter, Sabrina Bräuer, Ralf Haase, Nico Nitzsche, Christian Mitschke and Thomas L. Milani
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(15), 7949; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12157949 - 08 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4657
Abstract
Footwear properties can influence physiological and biomechanical variables, which may lead to positive changes in distance running performance. One innovative development in running shoe technology is adding carbon fiber plates to increase midsole bending stiffness. However, there are only a few studies investigating [...] Read more.
Footwear properties can influence physiological and biomechanical variables, which may lead to positive changes in distance running performance. One innovative development in running shoe technology is adding carbon fiber plates to increase midsole bending stiffness. However, there are only a few studies investigating the influence of shoe conditions on both physiological and biomechanical variables, simultaneously, when running for longer than 5 min or for distances > 1 km. Hence, the purpose of the current study was to investigate the influence of different running shoe concepts with carbon fiber plates on physiological and biomechanical parameters during a 10 km treadmill run. Twenty-three athletes participated in the study, which comprised four measurement days for each subject. On the first day, subjects performed a treadmill exhaustion test to determine maximum oxygen uptake. On the second, third, and fourth days, each subject ran 10 km at 70% of their maximum oxygen uptake in one of three shoe models. Significant differences were found between the shoe conditions for the biomechanical parameters, but not for the physiological parameters. It seems that runners adjusted their running styles to the shoe conditions during the 10 km run to reduce the load on the lower extremities without compromising their endurance performance. These results may have practical implications for runners, coaches, and shoe manufacturers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Running Biomechanics: From Commuting to Elite)
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10 pages, 1926 KiB  
Article
Effect of Sex-Specific Running Shoes on Female Recreational Runners
by Spencer Rasmussen, Baker Wilkes, Lily Poulton, Megan Roser, Shane Draper, Andrew Creer and Tyler Standifird
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(15), 7537; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12157537 - 27 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2219
Abstract
Alterations in running shoe design have been studied and used in the prevention of injury and enhancement of performance allowing running shoe companies to market to a variety of runners based on skill level, foot-strike pattern, and even sex. These alterations have been [...] Read more.
Alterations in running shoe design have been studied and used in the prevention of injury and enhancement of performance allowing running shoe companies to market to a variety of runners based on skill level, foot-strike pattern, and even sex. These alterations have been shown to affect biomechanical and physiological variables associated with running. Some shoe companies have designed shoes specifically for biological female runners due to the morphological differences found between male and female feet. The purpose of this study is to determine if sex-specific running shoes can alter female runner biomechanics or physiology. Female runners were asked to run in the male and female models of the Altra Torin 4 Plush shoe to determine if there were differences in ground reaction forces (GRFs), sagittal plane joint angles and moments, oxygen consumption (VO2), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and perceived level of comfort while running; There were no significant differences in GRFs, sagittal joint angles and moments, VO2, RER, or perceived comfort; There were no differences in measured biomechanical or physiological variables between the female and male version of the shoes suggesting that the alterations made to the female-specific shoe do not provide any additional benefit to female recreational runners. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Running Biomechanics: From Commuting to Elite)
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