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Applied Sciences
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Intelligent Techniques and 3D Virtual Reconstruction for Architectural Heritage
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Intelligent Techniques and 3D Virtual Reconstruction for Architectural Heritage

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 March 2026 | Viewed by 4443

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Federico Luis Del Blanco García

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Architectural Construction and Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: architecture; BIM; construction technology; computational design; virtual reality; artificial intelligence
Dr. Luis Javier Sánchez Aparicio

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Architectural Construction and Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: cultural heritage; geomatics; laser scanning; photogrammetry; diagnosis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Rafael Martín Talaverano

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Departamento de Arquitectura/Arkitektura Saila, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, San Sebastián, Spain
Interests: historical architecture; history of the construction; museums and buildings; landscape architecture and graphic design; models HBIM

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue invites contributions on innovative intelligent techniques and 3D virtual reconstructions in the field of architectural heritage and conservation. As digital technologies continue to evolve, they offer new opportunities to enhance the conservation, restoration, and analysis of historical buildings and monuments. We seek research papers, case studies, and reviews that explore innovative applications of 3D modeling, virtual reality, artificial intelligence, and other smart technologies for the preservation of cultural heritage.

Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the use of Building Information Modeling for heritage sites (BIM/HBIM), AI-based methods for automated reconstruction, the integration of computational design techniques into advanced workflows, and the role of virtual reality in immersive heritage experiences. We encourage submissions that demonstrate the potential of digital tools to improve our understanding of architectural history, as well as the preservation and sustainable management of architectural landmarks.

This Special Issue will showcase advancements and interdisciplinary approaches that bridge the gap between modern technology and the rich history of architectural heritage. Researchers, practitioners, and experts in the fields of architecture, archaeology, computer science, and digital heritage are invited to contribute to this Special Issue, which explores the future of heritage preservation.

Prof. Dr. Federico Luis Del Blanco García
Dr. Luis Javier Sánchez Aparicio
Dr. Rafael Martín Talaverano
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • building information modeling (BIM/HBIM)
  • digital twin
  • 3D reconstruction
  • 3D modelling
  • virtual reality
  • augmented reality
  • artificial intelligence
  • point clouds
  • NURBS modelling
  • architectural heritage
  • smart technologies
  • heritage conservation
  • computational design

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

34 pages, 9527 KB  
Article
High-Resolution 3D Thermal Mapping: From Dual-Sensor Calibration to Thermally Enriched Point Clouds
by Neri Edgardo Güidi, Andrea di Filippo and Salvatore Barba
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(19), 10491; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910491 - 28 Sep 2025
Abstract
Thermal imaging is increasingly applied in remote sensing to identify material degradation, monitor structural integrity, and support energy diagnostics. However, its adoption is limited by the low spatial resolution of thermal sensors compared to RGB cameras. This study proposes a modular pipeline to [...] Read more.
Thermal imaging is increasingly applied in remote sensing to identify material degradation, monitor structural integrity, and support energy diagnostics. However, its adoption is limited by the low spatial resolution of thermal sensors compared to RGB cameras. This study proposes a modular pipeline to generate thermally enriched 3D point clouds by fusing RGB and thermal imagery acquired simultaneously with a dual-sensor unmanned aerial vehicle system. The methodology includes geometric calibration of both cameras, image undistortion, cross-spectral feature matching, and projection of radiometric data onto the photogrammetric model through a computed homography. Thermal values are extracted using a custom parser and assigned to 3D points based on visibility masks and interpolation strategies. Calibration achieved 81.8% chessboard detection, yielding subpixel reprojection errors. Among twelve evaluated algorithms, LightGlue retained 99% of its matches and delivered a reprojection accuracy of 18.2% at 1 px, 65.1% at 3 px and 79% at 5 px. A case study on photovoltaic panels demonstrates the method’s capability to map thermal patterns with low temperature deviation from ground-truth data. Developed entirely in Python, the workflow integrates into Agisoft Metashape or other software. The proposed approach enables cost-effective, high-resolution thermal mapping with applications in civil engineering, cultural heritage conservation, and environmental monitoring applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Techniques and 3D Virtual Reconstruction for Architectural Heritage)
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36 pages, 12940 KB  
Article
Cyber Representation in Experimental Architectural Restoration: Integrating HBIM, As-Designed BIM, and VR in a Multilevel and Multitemporal Immersive Ecosystem
by Fabrizio Banfi, Marco Pela and Angelo Giuseppe Landi
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(18), 10243; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151810243 - 20 Sep 2025
Viewed by 466
Abstract
This study explores the transformative potential of cyber technologies in the preservation, representation, and restoration of architectural heritage. Bridging technical and humanistic dimensions, it examines how tools like Heritage Building Information Modeling (HBIM), As-Designed BIM, and Virtual Reality (VR) support deeper, multilevel, and [...] Read more.
This study explores the transformative potential of cyber technologies in the preservation, representation, and restoration of architectural heritage. Bridging technical and humanistic dimensions, it examines how tools like Heritage Building Information Modeling (HBIM), As-Designed BIM, and Virtual Reality (VR) support deeper, multilevel, and multitemporal understandings of cultural sites. Central to the research is an experimental restoration project on the castles of Civitella in Val di Chiana (Arezzo), serving as a methodological testbed for a digitally integrated approach. Developed through a scan-to-BIM process, the project yields a high-fidelity immersive ecosystem—both a rigorous model for future restoration and a VR platform enabling access to previously unreachable spaces. Here, representation is not a secondary or illustrative phase but a central, operative component in historical interpretation and architectural design. This approach embraces cyber representation: a digitally mediated, interactive, and evolving form that extends heritage beyond its physical boundaries. The immersive model fosters renewed dialogue between past and present, encouraging critical reflection on material authenticity, spatial transformation, and conservation strategies within a dynamic, participatory, interactive webVR environment. Representation thus becomes a generative and narrative tool, shaping restoration scenarios while enhancing analytical depth and public engagement. The study ultimately proposes a shift in historical storytelling toward a polyphonic, experiential, cyber-mediated narrative—where technology, memory, and perception converge to create new forms of cultural continuity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Techniques and 3D Virtual Reconstruction for Architectural Heritage)
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29 pages, 12262 KB  
Article
3D Heritage Reconstruction Through HBIM and Multi-Source Data Fusion: Geometric Change Analysis Across Decades
by Przemysław Klapa, Andrzej Żygadło and Massimiliano Pepe
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(16), 8929; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15168929 - 13 Aug 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 858
Abstract
The reconstruction of historic buildings requires the integration of diverse data sources, both geometric and non-geometric. This study presents a multi-source data analysis methodology for heritage reconstruction using 3D modeling and Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM). The proposed approach combines geometric data, including [...] Read more.
The reconstruction of historic buildings requires the integration of diverse data sources, both geometric and non-geometric. This study presents a multi-source data analysis methodology for heritage reconstruction using 3D modeling and Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM). The proposed approach combines geometric data, including point clouds acquired via Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS), with architectural documentation and non-geometric information such as photographs, historical records, and technical descriptions. The case study focuses on a wooden Orthodox church in Żmijowiska, Poland, analyzing geometric changes in the structure over multiple decades. The reconstruction process integrates modern surveys with archival sources and, in the absence of complete geometric data, utilizes semantic, topological, and structural information. Geometric datasets from the 1990s, 1930s, and the turn of the 20th century were analyzed, supplemented by intermediate archival photographs and technical documentation. This integrated method enabled the identification of transformation phases and verification of discrepancies between historical records and the building’s actual condition. The findings confirm that the use of HBIM and multi-source data fusion facilitates accurate reconstruction of historical geometry and supports visualization of spatial changes across decades. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Techniques and 3D Virtual Reconstruction for Architectural Heritage)
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20 pages, 7704 KB  
Article
Laser Scanning and Photogrammetry for Graphic Analysis and Heritage Documentation: The Lopera Tower, a 14th-Century Castilian Fortress
by Juan Francisco Molina Rozalem, Jesús Rodríguez Medina and Ignacio Acosta
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(15), 8737; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158737 - 7 Aug 2025
Viewed by 544
Abstract
Spain is among the European countries with the greatest number of preserved castles and defensive structures—some estimates place the total at around 10,000, the majority of which date back to the medieval period. Yet, surprisingly, many of these fortifications remain uncatalogued and in [...] Read more.
Spain is among the European countries with the greatest number of preserved castles and defensive structures—some estimates place the total at around 10,000, the majority of which date back to the medieval period. Yet, surprisingly, many of these fortifications remain uncatalogued and in an advanced state of ruin. This study focuses on a small fortress that has been overlooked by historiography and neglected by public authorities, yet which still stands after seven centuries: the Tower of Lopera, a castle belonging to the so-called Banda Morisca (the frontier of Al-Andalus in the 14th century). Using a combination of digital documentation techniques—namely, portable laser scanning, photogrammetry (via drone and camera), and digital image processing software—we have been able to digitize, geometrize, and document both the surviving architectural remains and their immediate physical environment. Rather than pursuing the latest technological innovations, this methodology prioritizes practical and realistic solutions based on the resources typically available to cultural heritage administrations. Our work serves two main objectives: to demonstrate the viability of applying such tools to this typology of architectural heritage and to conduct a detailed graphic and geometric analysis of the structure. Given the abundance of similar abandoned fortresses in Spain, the findings presented here could inform future heritage documentation strategies on a broader, potentially national, scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Techniques and 3D Virtual Reconstruction for Architectural Heritage)
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20 pages, 2776 KB  
Article
Automatic 3D Reconstruction: Mesh Extraction Based on Gaussian Splatting from Romanesque–Mudéjar Churches
by Nelson Montas-Laracuente, Emilio Delgado Martos, Carlos Pesqueira-Calvo, Giovanni Intra Sidola, Ana Maitín, Alberto Nogales and Álvaro José García-Tejedor
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(15), 8379; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158379 - 28 Jul 2025
Viewed by 1609
Abstract
This research introduces an automated 3D virtual reconstruction system tailored for architectural heritage (AH) applications, contributing to the ongoing paradigm shift from traditional CAD-based workflows to artificial intelligence-driven methodologies. It reviews recent advancements in machine learning and deep learning—particularly neural radiance fields (NeRFs) [...] Read more.
This research introduces an automated 3D virtual reconstruction system tailored for architectural heritage (AH) applications, contributing to the ongoing paradigm shift from traditional CAD-based workflows to artificial intelligence-driven methodologies. It reviews recent advancements in machine learning and deep learning—particularly neural radiance fields (NeRFs) and its successor, Gaussian splatting (GS)—as state-of-the-art techniques in the domain. The study advocates for replacing point cloud data in heritage building information modeling workflows with image-based inputs, proposing a novel “photo-to-BIM” pipeline. A proof-of-concept system is presented, capable of processing photographs or video footage of ancient ruins—specifically, Romanesque–Mudéjar churches—to automatically generate 3D mesh reconstructions. The system’s performance is assessed using both objective metrics and subjective evaluations of mesh quality. The results confirm the feasibility and promise of image-based reconstruction as a viable alternative to conventional methods. The study successfully developed a system for automated 3D mesh reconstruction of AH from images. It applied GS and Mip-splatting for NeRFs, proving superior in noise reduction for subsequent mesh extraction via surface-aligned Gaussian splatting for efficient 3D mesh reconstruction. This photo-to-mesh pipeline signifies a viable step towards HBIM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Techniques and 3D Virtual Reconstruction for Architectural Heritage)
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