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Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses

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A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Equids".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 19709

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Dr. Francisco Requena

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Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Animal Physiology Section, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
Interests: exercise physiology; animal welfare; equine sport medicine; equine sport performance; exercise test; lameness; rehabilitation; training; musculoskeletal ultrasound; clinical analysis
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Dr. Ana Muñoz

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Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Equine Sport Medicine Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
Interests: equine exercise physiology; equine sport medicine; equine sport performance; exercise test; lameness; rehabilitation; training
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Prof. Dr. Estrella Agüera

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Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Animal Physiology Section, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
Interests: physiology; exercise physiology; animal welfare; animal reproduction; applied physiology; equine; animal production
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Dear Colleagues,

The athletic species par excellence is the horse, far superior to all others due to its physical qualities of endurance, speed and strength. The assessment of physical fitness is of paramount importance to establish the programming and monitoring of training during the sport competition season, in order to achieve maximum performance, reduce the risk of musculoskeletal injuries and overtraining, and to enable the early detection of a loss of performance. The loss of performance can be related to all factors affecting the systems and organs responsible for the transport of oxygen from the outside to the muscle fibre (cardio-pulmonary system, blood, musculoskeletal system) for the development of chemical energy from substrates and its transformation into mechanical energy in the form of movement. Any alteration or injury to any of these systems or organs will result in a loss of performance that must be diagnosed as soon as possible in order to be able to make the right decision regarding the different types of treatment that the available science and technology in equine sports medicine provide.

For all these reasons, we welcome the submission of original and clinical research and reviews focusing on exercise physiology and equine sports medicine, applied to the early diagnosis, treatment and prevention of sporting performance loss in the horse in the different equestrian sporting modalities.

Dr. Francisco Requena
Dr. Ana Muñoz
Dr. Estrella Agüera
Guest Editors

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Keywords

exercise physiology
animal welfare
equine sport medicine
equine sport performance
exercise test
loss of performance
lameness
rehabilitation
training
musculoskeletal ultrasound
clinical analysis

Related Special Issue

Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses—Second Edition in Animals (1 article)

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 3800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Central and Peripheral Fatigue Evaluation during Physical Exercise in Athletic Horses by Means of Raman Spectroscopy

by Giuseppe Acri, Barbara Testagrossa, Giuseppe Piccione, Francesca Arfuso, Elisabetta Giudice and Claudia Giannetto

Animals 2023, 13(13), 2201; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13132201 - 05 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1105

Abstract

The evaluation of the performance levels in athletic horses is of major importance to prevent sports injuries. Raman spectroscopy is an innovative technique that allows for a rapid evaluation of biomolecules in biological fluids. It also permits qualitative and quantitative sample analyses, which lead to the simultaneous determination of the components of the examined biological fluids. On the basis of this, the Raman spectroscopy technique was applied on serum samples collected from five Italian Saddle horses subjected to a standardized obstacle course preceded by a warm-up to evaluate the applicability of this technique for the assessment of central and peripheral fatigue in athletic horses. Blood samples were collected via jugular venipuncture in a vacutainer tube with a clot activator before exercise, immediately after exercise, and 30 min and 1 h after the end of the obstacle course. Observing the obtained Raman spectra, the major changes due to the experimental conditions appeared in the (1300–1360) cm⁻¹ and (1385–1520) cm⁻¹ bands. In the (1300–1360) cm⁻¹ band, lipids and tryptophan were identified; in the (1385–1520) cm⁻¹ band, leucine, glycine, isoleucine, lactic acid, tripeptide, adenosine, and beta carotene were identified. A significant effect of exercise was recorded on all the sub-bands. In particular, a change immediately after exercise versus before exercise was found. Moreover, the mean lactic concentration was positively correlated with the Raman area of the sub-band assigned to lactic acid. In this context, the application of Raman spectroscopy on blood serum samples represents a useful technique for secondary-structure protein identification to investigate the metabolic changes that occur in athletic horses during physical exercise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

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10 pages, 287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Raid Hipico Uruguayo Competencies by Ride Type: Causes of Death and Risk Factors

by Gimena Brito, Juan Pablo Damián, Gonzalo Suárez, Gretel Ruprechter and Pablo Trigo

Animals 2023, 13(10), 1602; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13101602 - 10 May 2023

Viewed by 1637

Abstract

RHU is the oldest endurance sport in Uruguay. However, despite 80 years of racing, there are no studies to characterize this type of competition, explore rates and causes of death, and identify the associated risk factors. The aim was to characterize the Raid Hipico Uruguayo (RHU) competencies according to the distance (short (SR, 60 km) vs. long (LR, 80–115 km)), the causes of deaths, and the associated risk factors. The study population comprised horses (n = 16,856) that participated in RHU rides from 2007 to 2018. LR were more frequent than SR (p < 0.001). The average speed of winners was higher in SR (32.12 km/h) than in LR (28.14 km/h) (p < 0.001). There were 99 fatalities (5.9 per 1000 starts). SR had greater frequency of high comfort index (CI = Temp [°F] + Humidity [%]) than LR, and LR had greater frequency of low CI than SR (p < 0.001). The percentage of inexperienced horses and those who completed the ride was greater in SR than in LR (p < 0.001). In both types of rides, more horses died during than after the ride, and inexperienced horses were more likely to suffer fatalities than horses with prior experience in the sport (p < 0.05). SR were associated with increased risk of sudden death, while LR were associated with increased risk of death due to metabolic alterations. The high fatality index shown in this work warrants urgent investigation in this sport to minimize mortality associated with RHU-specific diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

11 pages, 1824 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydroelectrolytic and Acid–Base Parameters after 80 to 115 km Endurance Races (Raid Uruguayo) and Their Association with the Comfort Index

by Gonzalo Marichal, Pablo Trigo, Carlos Soto, Ana Meikle and Gonzalo Suárez

Animals 2023, 13(4), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040670 - 14 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1419

Abstract

The Raid Uruguayo (RAID) is an equestrian endurance competition. This study characterized the hydroelectrolytic parameters (Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, tCa⁺⁺, and iCa⁺⁺), hematocrit (Ht), total plasma protein (TPP), and blood pH from 900 equine athletes (finishers and non-finishers) competing over distances of 80 to 115 km under different climate conditions. Paired blood samples were taken prior to the start of the competition (sample 1) and at the end of the race or at the time of leaving the competition (sample 2). The association of the comfort index (CI: low, moderate, and high) with blood parameters was evaluated. Of the 900 horses included, 550 were not able to finish the trial. The comfort index was not associated with success in completing the race. In the horses that finished the race, the CI was not associated with Ht, pH, TPP, or Na⁺ concentrations in samples taken after finishing the RAID. In contrast, the decreases in chloride, K⁺, tCa⁺⁺, and iCa⁺⁺ concentrations found after the race were more pronounced at moderate and high CI values when compared with low CI values. In horses that did not finish the race, the CI was associated with all variables except for Ht. The data confirmed the relevance of considering the impact of the comfort index in hydroelectrolytic losses in the RAID, as it influence ssuccess or failure in the performance of endurance horses finishing the competition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

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11 pages, 1294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rider Variables Affecting the Stirrup Directional Force Asymmetry during Simulated Riding Trot

by Paolo Baragli, Alberto Alessi, Marco Pagliai, Martina Felici, Asahi Ogi, Lesley Hawson, Angelo Gazzano and Barbara Padalino

Animals 2022, 12(23), 3364; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12233364 - 30 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1904

Abstract

Riders’ asymmetry may cause back pain in both human and equine athletes. This pilot study aimed at documenting in a simple and quick way asymmetry in riders during a simulation of three different riding positions on wooden horseback using load cells applied on the stirrup leathers and identifying possible associations between riders’ asymmetry and their gender, age, level of riding ability, years of riding experience, riding style, motivation of riding, primary discipline and handedness. After completing an interview to obtain the previously mentioned information, 147 riders performed a standardized test on a saddle fixed on a wooden horseback-shaped model. The riding simulation was split into three phases of 1 min each: (1) sit in the saddle, (2) standing in the stirrups and (3) rising trot. The directional force on the left and the right stirrup leathers was recorded every 0.2 s. A paired t-test was performed on the recorded data to test the difference (i.e., asymmetry) in each phase. In phases 1, 2 and 3, 99.3% (53.4% heavier on the right (R)), 98% (52.8% heavier on the left (L)) and 46.3% (51.5% heavier on the left (L)) of the riders were asymmetrical, respectively. Chi-square tests showed a significant association between riding ability and riding experience, but no significant association between reported handedness and calculated leg-sidedness (p > 0.05). Univariate logistic (1: asymmetry, 0: symmetry) regression analysis was performed only on the phase 3 data. One-hand riders were found twice more likely to be asymmetrical than two-hand riders (Odds Ratio (OR): 2.18, Confidence Interval (CI): 1.1–4.29; p = 0.024). This preliminary study confirmed that the majority of the riders are asymmetrical in load distribution on stirrups and suggested the riding style as a possible risk factor for asymmetry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

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12 pages, 882 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Infrared Thermography to Assess Body Temperature as a Physiological Stress Indicator in Horses during Ridden and Lunging Sessions

by Joana Noronha Martins and Severiano R. Silva

Animals 2022, 12(23), 3255; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12233255 - 23 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1753

Abstract

Equitation is a cause of physiological stress in the equine athlete, and personality is a factor generally associated with the different responses of equines to stressors. This study explored ocular temperature, measured via infrared thermography, associated with personality and stress in horses submitted to dressage exercising in riding lessons, ridden training and lunging. Infrared thermograms of 16 horses were taken before and after sessions using an FLIR F4 camera (FLIR Systems AB, Sweden) to determine maximum eye surface IRT temperature (IRTmax), and total training time was registered (T). A novel-stimulus test was conducted for personality assessment, and the ridden behavior was scored (mRBS). The results showed that T was statistically different (p ˂ 0.001) between modalities, but no differences were found in any IRTmax tests. Statistical correlations were found between mRBS and personality groups, sex and age (all p < 0.001). Additionally—and with caution, given the sample—no association was found between mRBS and post-workout IRT readings and modality, or between pre-workout IRT readings and personality groups. We conclude that trained horses show little stress when working in a familiar environment and when the workout plan is submaximal. The personality test was adequate and positively correlated with ridden behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

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13 pages, 276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Lower Airway Inflammation on Fitness Parameters in Standardbred Racehorses

by Chiara Maria Lo Feudo, Luca Stucchi, Bianca Conturba, Giovanni Stancari and Francesco Ferrucci

Animals 2022, 12(22), 3228; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12223228 - 21 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1307

Abstract

Mild–moderate equine asthma (MEA) is a common respiratory disorder among racehorses, characterized by lower airway inflammation. Although it is generally agreed that MEA causes poor performance, contrasting results have been reported about the effects of tracheal mucus and the leukocyte populations of the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) on performance. This study aims to investigate the associations between airway inflammation and fitness parameters measured during an incremental treadmill test on Standardbred racehorses. For this purpose, the clinical records of 116 Standardbreds subjected to a diagnostic protocol for poor performance were retrospectively reviewed. Parametric and nonparametric statistics were used to evaluate the relationships between endoscopic scores, BAL cytological results, and fitness parameters. Moreover, horses were divided into MEA and non-MEA groups and into neutrophilic, eosinophilic–mastocytic, and mixed MEA groups; fitness parameters were compared between groups. Neutrophils percentages were inversely correlated with the speed at a heart rate of 200 bpm, the speed and heart rate at a plasma lactate concentration of 4 mmol/L (VLa4 and HRLa4), and the maximal speed, while they were positively correlated with higher lactate concentrations. Moreover, significant differences were detected between different MEA subtypes concerning VLa4, HRLa4, and lactate concentrations. These results suggest that airway neutrophilic inflammation impairs athletic capacity in Standardbreds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

12 pages, 2128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Previous Exercise on a Water Treadmill at Different Depths Affects the Accelerometric Pattern Recorded on a Track in Horses

by Aritz Saitua, Cristina Castejón-Riber, Francisco Requena, David Argüelles, Natalie Calle-González, Antonia Sánchez de Medina and Ana Muñoz

Animals 2022, 12(22), 3086; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12223086 - 09 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1254

Abstract

During a water treadmill (WT) exercise, horses change their accelerometric patterns. We aimed to analyze if these changes persist during terrestrial locomotion. Six horses were randomly subjected to 40 min duration WT exercises, without water (WW), at the depth of fetlock (FET), carpus (CAR) and stifle (STF), with a day off between them. Before and after 30 min after WT, horses were evaluated at walk and at trot on a track with a triaxial accelerometer fixed on the pectoral (PECT) and sacrum (SML) regions. The percent of change from baseline (before WT and after each exercise session) were calculated. Total, dorsoventral, longitudinal and mediolateral accelerometric activities and dorsoventral displacement increased with the accelerometer in PECT but decreased after WT at STF. Velocity increased with the accelerometer in PECT but decreased with the accelerometer in SML, particularly after WT at STF. A reduction in stride frequency was found with the accelerometer in PECT. SL increased with the accelerometer in SML but decreased with WT at STF. Some accelerometric changes that happened on WT remained shortly in terrestrial locomotion. The reduction in some parameters after WT at STF depth seems to indicate fatigue. This should be considered in training or rehabilitation programs for unfit animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

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10 pages, 1448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Two Equations for Prediction of Digestible Energy in Mixed Feeds and Diets for Horses

by Andrés Luis Martínez Marín, Emanuela Valle, Domenico Bergero, Francisco Requena, Claudio Forte and Achille Schiavone

Animals 2022, 12(13), 1628; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12131628 - 24 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1474

Abstract

Several authors have developed equations for estimating digestible energy in horse feeds as an alternative to the inconveniences of in vivo digestibility assays. We aimed to evaluate two of such equations. A dataset was constructed from the literature with 32 mixed feeds and diets of known proximate composition, whose digestibility was measured in in vivo assays. Then, the digestible energy of the mixed feeds and diets was predicted with both equations from their proximate components. Precision, accuracy, reproducibility, bias, and decomposition of total error of predictions were determined. Both equations performed almost equally well (R² = 0.89 vs. 0.87, root mean square error of prediction = 183 vs. 217 kcal/kg dry matter, concordance correlation coefficient = 0.91 vs. 0.86, and linear error = 24.6 vs. 33.6% of total error). Linear bias (p < 0.01 in both equations) resulted in overvaluation of low digestible energy feeds and, to a lesser extent, undervaluation of high digestible energy feeds and was significantly (p < 0.05) related to crude fiber. The obtained results indicate that the accuracy of both equations could be improved by reassessing the effects of crude fiber on the digestibility of the other proximate components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

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11 pages, 724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Horse Racing as a Model to Study the Relationship between Air Pollutants and Physical Performance

by Oscar F. Araneda

Animals 2022, 12(9), 1139; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12091139 - 28 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2057

Abstract

This study proposes the theoretical principles for the selection of a sample of horse races to study the relationship between air pollutants and performance. These criteria were then applied to an original dataset comparing the correlations between these variables obtained in “Handicap” versus “Conditional” type races. Methods: The mean concentration of pollutants during the six hours prior to the race and the speed of the test were determined in 441 official races at a racecourse in Santiago, Chile, during the summer and winter months of 2012. Using layout, track condition and distance (1000, 1100 and 1200 m) as criteria, a homogeneous group of races (“Handicap”; n = 214) versus a heterogeneous group (“Conditional”; n = 95) were compared using simple correlations (Spearman’s test). Results: Race speed was related to greater levels of PM₁₀, PM_2.5, NO₂, NO and SO₂ and it was positively related to O₃, a trend that was observed in the 1000, 1100 m races and in the total “Handicap” group. Similar results were observed only in 1000 m for the “Conditional” group with lower Rho, except for PM₁₀ and PM_2.5. The total races of the conditional group showed lower Rho values and significant associations of the same trend for CO, NO₂, NO and SO₂. Conclusions: Horse races between 1000 and 1200 m of the “Handicap” type appear to be an interesting group to study the relationship between air pollutants and the performance of racehorses. In the future, our observations should be expanded to other distances and other types of races. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

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15 pages, 969 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluctuations of Physiological Variables during Conditioning of Lipizzan Fillies before Starting under Saddle

by Nina Čebulj-Kadunc, Robert Frangež and Peter Kruljc

Animals 2022, 12(7), 836; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12070836 - 25 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1631

Abstract

Scientific studies on the physiological responses of young horses to workloads are limited. Therefore, the aim of our study was to determine the basal values of some cardiovascular, thermoregulatory, hematological, and biochemical parameters in 10 purebred Lipizzan fillies aged 4 years in the initial phase of training, and their responses to a graded workload, i.e., by lunging for 15 min in four exercise tests at 2-week intervals. The basal values of the measured parameters were within a range for warm-blooded horses and mostly increased after exercise in all four exercise tests. Resting heart rates were above physiological values at the baseline but decreased as the study progressed. Bilateral symmetry of body surface temperatures (BSTs) was confirmed at rest and after exercise. The highest BSTs were measured at the cranial, followed by the caudal and distal body regions. A moderate increase in cortisol and a small increase in lactate concentration indicated a low intensity of workload. The results presented contribute to the knowledge of the complex physiological processes that occur in young horses during exercise and provide a basis for further research into the field of sports physiology and welfare, as well as the conservation and development of the Lipizzan breed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

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16 pages, 1708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Upper Body Movement Symmetry in Reining Quarter Horses during Trot In-Hand, on the Lunge and during Ridden Exercise

by Thilo Pfau, W. Michael Scott and Tabitha Sternberg Allen

Animals 2022, 12(5), 596; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12050596 - 27 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2645

Abstract

Veterinary lameness examinations often comprise assessing ridden horses. Quantitative movement symmetry measurements can aid evidence-based decision making. While these are available for ‘English’ style riding, they are not for ‘Western’ style riding. This quantitative observational study quantified movement symmetry in reining Quarter Horses (QHs). Movement symmetry of the head, withers and sacrum (differences between minima, maxima and upward amplitudes) were quantified with inertial sensors in N = 30 medium/high level reining QHs during trot in-hand, on the lunge and ridden by one experienced rider (straight-line/circles) on reining-purpose riding surfaces. Mixed linear models for movement symmetry assessed the effects of ridden exercise and movement direction (fixed factors), stride time (covariate) and horse (random factor): single factors and two-way interactions with Bonferroni correction at p < 0.05. Three withers and pelvic parameters showed marginally more symmetrical movement when ridden (p ≤ 0.044; 1–5 mm differences). Three withers, three sacrum and one head parameter were significantly affected by movement direction (all p ≤ 0.026), five showed increased asymmetry on the inside rein, and two, quantifying vertical displacement maximum difference, showed the opposite. Riding QHs in ‘Western’ style showed small movement symmetry differences. Circular exercise confirmed increases in weight bearing asymmetry on the inside rein and in pushoff asymmetry on the outside rein. This should be further investigated for differentiating between different causes of lameness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Factors Affecting the Performance of Sport Horses)

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