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Advances in Pharmacokinetics in Minor and Exotic Species
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Advances in Pharmacokinetics in Minor and Exotic Species

A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Veterinary Clinical Studies".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2026) | Viewed by 2850

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Pedro Marín Carrillo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Murcia, 30071 Murcia, Spain
Interests: pharmacokinetics; pharmacodynamics; pharmacovigilance; antimicrobials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Pharmacokinetic studies are crucial for exotic, aquatic, and minor species because they provide essential data on how drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolised, and excreted in these animals. This data is im-portant because the processes often differ significantly from those in well-studied domestic species. Due to unique physiological and metabolic traits, extrapolating drug dosages from common species can lead to ineffective treatment or toxicity in exotic and aquatic animals. These studies help ensure safe and effec-tive dosing, improve therapeutic outcomes, and support evidence-based veterinary care. Additionally, pharmacokinetic data are crucial for regulatory approval, particularly in food-producing minor species, to ensure that drug residues remain within safe limits for human consumption.

This Special Issue aims to publish original research papers or reviews concerning the pharmacokinetics of new drugs in animals or drugs that have not yet been evaluated for their pharmacokinetic profile in mi-nor species (such as small ruminants, camelids or rabbits), aquatic species (such as ornamental or aqua-culture fish) and exotic species (zoo and wildlife species, reptiles or amphibians) to ensure clinical success and prevent the food residues.

Dr. Pedro Marín Carrillo
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Animals is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • pharmacokinetics
  • small ruminants
  • PK/PD integration
  • withdrawal periods
  • bioavailability
  • drug dosage adjustment
  • exotic species

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Published Papers (2 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 1862 KB  
Article
Depletion of Amoxicillin and Its Major Metabolites in Anatolian Water Buffalo Milk After Intramuscular Administration
by Ulas Acaroz, Abdullah Eryavuz, Damla Arslan-Acaroz, Sinan Ince, Ibrahim Durmus, Azra Mila Eryavuz and Ismail Kucukkurt
Animals 2026, 16(6), 963; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16060963 - 19 Mar 2026
Viewed by 556
Abstract
Antibiotic residues in water buffalo milk are a food-safety concern, yet depletion data are scarce. The purpose of this study was to characterize the depletion profiles of amoxicillin (AMOX) and its two major metabolites, amoxicilloic acid (AMA) and amoxicillin diketopiperazine-2′,5′-dione (2,5-DKP), in Anatolian [...] Read more.
Antibiotic residues in water buffalo milk are a food-safety concern, yet depletion data are scarce. The purpose of this study was to characterize the depletion profiles of amoxicillin (AMOX) and its two major metabolites, amoxicilloic acid (AMA) and amoxicillin diketopiperazine-2′,5′-dione (2,5-DKP), in Anatolian water buffalo milk after a single intramuscular administration and to estimate a milk withdrawal time relative to the EU MRL. We tested the hypothesis that AMOX concentrations would decrease below the EU MRL over successive milkings and that AMA and 2,5-DKP would exhibit depletion kinetics distinct from the parent compound. Five lactating Anatolian water buffaloes received a single intramuscular injection of amoxicillin (15 milligrams per kilogram). Milk was collected at each milking (twice daily) for seven days and analyzed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry with quantification limits below the European Union maximum residue limit for amoxicillin in milk (4 micrograms per kilogram). Amoxicillin peaked at the second milking (mean 13.65 micrograms per kilogram), mean concentrations fell below the maximum residue limit from the sixth milking, and they became non-quantifiable from the tenth milking onward. Two major metabolites, amoxicillinic acid and amoxicillin diketopiperazine-2′,5′-dione, peaked earlier (2,5-DKP Tmax 12 h) or at higher concentrations (AMA Cmax 32.64 µg/kg vs. AMOX 13.65 µg/kg) and remained detectable up to the thirteenth milking, with longer apparent terminal half-lives (32.0 and 52.8 h) than amoxicillin (23.5 h); the mixed-effects model confirmed different depletion rates among analytes (milking × analyte interaction p = 4.63 × 10−5). A log-linear withdrawal model applying the EMA 95/95 tolerance limit indicated that the first time point at which the upper tolerance limit fell below the EU MRL was 84.7 h after dosing; rounded up to the next 12 h milking interval, this corresponds to a reported withdrawal period of 96 h (≈8 milkings). These results provide species-specific residue kinetics for amoxicillin in Anatolian buffalo milk and support considering metabolites in monitoring and withdrawal-time decisions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Pharmacokinetics in Minor and Exotic Species)
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11 pages, 432 KB  
Article
Pharmacokinetics of Tolfenamic Acid Administered Orally and Intravenously at Different Doses in Pekin Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domestica)
by Orhan Corum, Kamil Uney, Pedro Marin, Duygu Durna Corum, Devran Coskun, Elena Badillo and Muammer Elmas
Animals 2025, 15(16), 2326; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15162326 - 8 Aug 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1866
Abstract
This study aimed to examine the pharmacokinetic changes in tolfenamic acid administered intravenously and orally to ducks at different doses (2, 4, and 8 mg/kg). Furthermore, the binding ratio to plasma proteins was assessed utilizing the ultrafiltration method. Eighteen male Pekin ducks were [...] Read more.
This study aimed to examine the pharmacokinetic changes in tolfenamic acid administered intravenously and orally to ducks at different doses (2, 4, and 8 mg/kg). Furthermore, the binding ratio to plasma proteins was assessed utilizing the ultrafiltration method. Eighteen male Pekin ducks were randomly assigned to three dosage groups (2, 4, and 8 mg/kg), with each group undergoing a trial in two phases: intravenous (IV) and oral administration. The sample was analyzed using an approved HPLC-UV method. A non-compartmental analysis was utilized to evaluate the pharmacokinetic data. For 2 mg/kg IV injection, the area under the curve from zero to infinity (AUC0-∞), total clearance (ClT), volume of distribution at steady state (Vdss), and elimination half-life (t1/2ʎz) were 13.03 h*µg/mL, 0.15 L/h/kg, 0.30 L/kg, and 1.72 h, respectively. Following oral administration at a dose of 2 mg/kg, the AUC0-∞, peak plasma concentration (Cmax), and bioavailability were 6.32 h*µg/mL, 2.25 µg/mL, and 48.52%, respectively. The t1/2ʎz was extended, Cmax and AUC0-∞ elevated, Tmax shortened, and ClT decreased in a dose-dependent manner. No dose-related change was observed in Vdss and bioavailability. In ducks, tolfenamic acid’s plasma protein binding was 99.74%, unaffected by concentration. These results may contribute to the application of tolfenamic acid in ducks at different doses, but dose-related changes in therapeutic efficacy should also be demonstrated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Pharmacokinetics in Minor and Exotic Species)
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