Journal Description
Soil Systems
Soil Systems
- formerly Soils - is an international, scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal on soil science, published quarterly online by MDPI. The Italian Society of Soil Science (SISS) is affiliated with Soil Systems and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), AGRIS, PubAg, GeoRef, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Soil Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (Earth-Surface Processes)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 31.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 4.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
3.5 (2024);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.8 (2024)
Latest Articles
Assessing the Effect of Undirected Forest Restoration and Flooding on the Soil Quality in an Agricultural Floodplain
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030088 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
This study investigated the impacts of land-use history and an episodic flood event on the soil quality of a riverine floodplain ecosystem, providing long-term and short-term disturbance perspectives. The study took place in the Saint Michael’s College Natural Area, which has over a
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This study investigated the impacts of land-use history and an episodic flood event on the soil quality of a riverine floodplain ecosystem, providing long-term and short-term disturbance perspectives. The study took place in the Saint Michael’s College Natural Area, which has over a hundred-year history of land-use change. Based on aerial orthoimagery, three zones (a recently abandoned farm field, a new-growth forest, and an old-growth forest) were selected that reflected different land-use histories. Two plots were selected per zone and pooled soil samples were collected from each before and after a major flooding event. Surface soil quality before flooding was often similar among the new- and old-growth forested areas (1.4 mg-P/g-soil, 6.8% soil organic matter (SOM), 0.79 humification index (HIX), and 13% Peak T) but differed from that found in the recently abandoned farm field, which had higher phosphorus levels (1.6 mg-P/g-soil), lower SOM content (3.9%), more microbial-like SOM (0.65 HIX and 17% Peak T), and drier soils. Flooding caused SOM to better resemble that of a forest rather than an agricultural field, and it lowered phosphorus levels. The results of our study suggest that episodic flooding events could help accelerate the restoration of soil organic matter conditions.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Soil Management and Conservation: 2nd Edition)
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Seasonality of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Diversity and Glomalin in Sodic Soils of Grasslands Under Contrasting Grazing Intensities
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Ileana García, Karla Cáceres-Mago and Alejandra Gabriela Becerra
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030087 - 5 Aug 2025
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Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) taxa, glomalin protein, and hyphal density are potential indicators of soil functionality of temperate grasslands in marginal environments subject to grazing over the years. This study evaluated how the AMF community composition, glomalin protein, and hyphal density vary in
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Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) taxa, glomalin protein, and hyphal density are potential indicators of soil functionality of temperate grasslands in marginal environments subject to grazing over the years. This study evaluated how the AMF community composition, glomalin protein, and hyphal density vary in response to grazing intensity (low or high) and seasonality (spring and autumn) in sodic soils of Argentinian temperate grasslands. The AMF community was dominated by Glomeraceae species. Funneliformis geosporus and Glomus brohultii were the most abundant in both seasons and all grasslands. No AMF species were associated with a particular grazing intensity. However, Entrophospora etunicata, Glomus fuegianum, Septoglomus constrictum, and Acaulospora sp. occurred only in spring, and no species were exclusive to autumn. Hyphal density was highest in grasslands with low grazing intensity and can be considered an indicator of soil functionality. Glomalin protein was the highest in spring in all grasslands. The lower grazing intensity in grasslands with poor livestock control showed no changes in AMF diversity. The AMF community showed high adaptation to soil conditions, indicating high resilience. We concluded that longer periods of controlled grazing management are needed to improve soil conditions and, consequently, change the AMF species composition.
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Open AccessArticle
Spatial and Temporal Variability of C Stocks and Fertility Levels After Repeated Compost Additions: A Case Study in a Converted Mediterranean Perennial Cropland
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Arleen Rodríguez-Declet, Maria Teresa Rodinò, Salvatore Praticò, Antonio Gelsomino, Adamo Domenico Rombolà, Giuseppe Modica and Gaetano Messina
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030086 - 4 Aug 2025
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Land use conversion to perennial cropland often degrades the soil structure and fertility, particularly under Mediterranean climatic conditions. This study assessed spatial and temporal dynamics of soil properties and tree responses to 3-year repeated mature compost additions in a citrus orchard. Digital soil
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Land use conversion to perennial cropland often degrades the soil structure and fertility, particularly under Mediterranean climatic conditions. This study assessed spatial and temporal dynamics of soil properties and tree responses to 3-year repeated mature compost additions in a citrus orchard. Digital soil mapping revealed strong baseline heterogeneity in texture, CEC, and Si pools. Compost application markedly increased total organic C and N levels, aggregate stability, and pH with noticeable changes after the first amendment, whereas a limited C storage potential was found following further additions. NDVI values of tree canopies monitored over a 3-year period showed significant time-dependent changes not correlated with the soil fertility variables, thus suggesting that multiple interrelated factors affect plant responses. The non-crystalline amorphous Si/total amorphous Si (iSi:Siamor) ratio is here proposed as a novel indicator of pedogenic alteration in disturbed agroecosystems. These findings highlight the importance of tailoring organic farming strategies to site-specific conditions and reinforce the value to combine C and Si pool analysis for long-term soil fertility assessment.
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Poultry Manure-Derived Biochar Synthesis, Characterization, and Valorization in Agriculture: Effect of Pyrolysis Temperature and Metal-Salt Modification
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Samar Hadroug, Leila El-Bassi, Salah Jellali, Ahmed Amine Azzaz, Mejdi Jeguirim, Helmi Hamdi, James J. Leahy, Amine Aymen Assadi and Witold Kwapinski
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030085 - 4 Aug 2025
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In the present work, six biochars were produced from the pyrolysis of poultry manure at 400 °C and 600 °C (PM-B-400 and PM-B-600), and their post-modification with, respectively, iron chloride (PM-B-400-Fe and PM-B-600-Fe) and potassium permanganate (PM-B-400-Mn and PM-B-600-Mn). First, these biochars were
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In the present work, six biochars were produced from the pyrolysis of poultry manure at 400 °C and 600 °C (PM-B-400 and PM-B-600), and their post-modification with, respectively, iron chloride (PM-B-400-Fe and PM-B-600-Fe) and potassium permanganate (PM-B-400-Mn and PM-B-600-Mn). First, these biochars were deeply characterized through the assessment of their particle size distribution, pH, electrical conductivity, pH at point-zero charge, mineral composition, morphological structure, and surface functionality and crystallinity, and then valorized as biofertilizer to grow spring barley at pot-scale for 40 days. Characterization results showed that Fe- and Mn-based nanoparticles were successfully loaded onto the surface of the post-modified biochars, which significantly enhanced their structural and surface chemical properties. Moreover, compared to the control treatment, both raw and post-modified biochars significantly improved the growth parameters of spring barley plants (shoot and root length, biomass weight, and nutrient content). The highest biomass production was obtained for the treatment with PM-B-400-Fe, owing to its enhanced physico-chemical properties and its higher ability in releasing nutrients and immobilizing heavy metals. These results highlight the potential use of Fe-modified poultry manure-derived biochar produced at low temperatures as a sustainable biofertilizer for soil enhancement and crop yield improvement, while addressing manure management issues.
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Open AccessArticle
Soil Texture’s Hidden Influence: Decoding Plant Diversity Patterns in Arid Ecosystems
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Shuaiyu Wang, Younian Wang, Zhiwei Li and Chengzhi Li
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030084 - 25 Jul 2025
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Desert plant communities play a vital role in sustaining the stability of arid ecosystems; however, they demonstrate limited resilience to environmental changes. A critical aspect of understanding community assembly mechanisms is determining whether soil texture heterogeneity affects vegetation diversity in arid deserts, especially
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Desert plant communities play a vital role in sustaining the stability of arid ecosystems; however, they demonstrate limited resilience to environmental changes. A critical aspect of understanding community assembly mechanisms is determining whether soil texture heterogeneity affects vegetation diversity in arid deserts, especially under conditions of extreme water scarcity and restricted nutrient availability. This study systematically examined the relationships between plant diversity and soil physicochemical properties across four soil texture types—sand, sandy loam, loamy sand, and silty loam—by selecting four representative desert systems in the Hami region of Xinjiang, China. The objective was to elucidate the mechanisms through which soil texture may impact desert plant species diversity. The findings revealed that silty loam exhibited distinct characteristics in comparison to the other three sandy soil types. Despite its higher nutrient content, silty loam demonstrated the lowest vegetation diversity. The Shannon–Wiener index (H′), Simpson dominance index (C), Margalef richness index (D), and Pielou evenness index (Jsw) for silty loam were all lower compared to those for sand, sandy loam, and loamy sand. However, silty loam exhibited higher values in electrical conductivity (EC), urease activity (SUR), and nutrient content, including soil organic matter (SOM), ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N), and available potassium (AK), than the other three soil textures. This study underscores the significant regulatory influence of soil texture on plant diversity in arid environments, offering new insights and practical foundations for the conservation and management of desert ecosystems.
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Open AccessArticle
Blending Potassium Rocks with KCl Fertilizer to Enhance Crop Biomass and Reduce K Leaching in Sandy Soil
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Cristiane Prezotto Silveira, Johnny Rodrigues Soares, Rafael Marangoni Montes, Julia Savieto and Rafael Otto
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030083 - 23 Jul 2025
Abstract
Combining potassium-containing rocks with conventional KCl may improve the agronomic use of K rock and reduce leaching from high-soluble sources. The aim of this study was to evaluate K rocks (phonolite and alkaline) and the mixture with KCl at different K rates on
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Combining potassium-containing rocks with conventional KCl may improve the agronomic use of K rock and reduce leaching from high-soluble sources. The aim of this study was to evaluate K rocks (phonolite and alkaline) and the mixture with KCl at different K rates on the biomass production of maize and rice (residual effect), K uptake, and K leaching. The experiment was conducted in greenhouse columns with sandy soil. The experimental design included four K sources: PR (phonolite rock), PR + KCl in an 86:14 mass ratio, AR (alkaline rock), and KCl; three K rates (100, 200, and 400 mg kg−1); and a control (no K), with five replicates. PR + KCl resulted in similar maize biomass (120 g column−1) and K uptake (18 mg g−1) compared to KCl, and it was higher than the PR, the AR, and the control, which produced 86, 48, and 32 g column−1, respectively. The residual effect of PR, PR + KCl, and KCl generated similar rice biomass. K leaching reached 15% of K applied with KCl and was reduced by 50% with K rocks. Thus, the mixture of PR + KCl can improve K fertilization compared to KCl, enhancing maize and rice biomass while reducing K leaching.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Fertility Evaluation and Precision Fertilization)
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Soil Heavy Metal Contamination in the Targuist Dumpsite, North Morocco: Ecological and Health Risk Assessments
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Kaouthar Andaloussi, Hafid Achtak, Abdeltif El Ouahrani, Jalal Kassout, Giovanni Vinti, Daniele Di Trapani, Gaspare Viviani, Hassnae Kouali, Mhammed Sisouane, Khadija Haboubi and Mostafa Stitou
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030082 - 22 Jul 2025
Abstract
This study aims to assess the ecological and human health risks associated with four heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn) in the soil of a dumpsite in Targuist city, Morocco. In total, 16 surface soil samples were collected from the dumpsite and
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This study aims to assess the ecological and human health risks associated with four heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn) in the soil of a dumpsite in Targuist city, Morocco. In total, 16 surface soil samples were collected from the dumpsite and its nearby areas following leaching drain flows. The pollution load index (PLI), geo-accumulation index (Igeo), and potential ecological risk index (RI) were subsequently determined. In addition, hazard quotient (HQ) and health index (HI) were used to assess the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks associated with the soil heavy metal contents. The PLI indicated significant contamination by the studied heavy metals. On the other hand, the Igeo values suggested no Cr contamination, moderate contamination by Cu and Zn, and severe contamination by Cd. The RI indicated a dominant contribution from Cd, with minor contributions from Cu, Zn, and Cr accounting for 92.47, 5.44, 1.11, and 0.96%, respectively, to the potential ecological risk in the study area. The non-carcinogenic health risks associated with exposure of the nearby population to the soil heavy metals at the dumpsite and burned solid waste-derived air pollution were below the threshold value of 1 for both children and adults. Although carcinogenic risks were observed in the study area, they were acceptable for both children and adults according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). However, carcinogenic risks associated with Cr were unacceptable according to the Italian Legislation. Finally, strategies to mitigate the risks posed by the dumpsite were also discussed in this study.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Trace and Hazardous Elements and Emerging Pollutants in Soils and Sediments)
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Can Biochar Alleviate Machinery-Induced Soil Compaction? A Field Study in a Tuscan Vineyard
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Fabio De Francesco, Giovanni Mastrolonardo, Gregorio Fantoni, Fabrizio Ungaro and Silvia Baronti
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030081 - 19 Jul 2025
Abstract
Soil compaction from mechanized agriculture is a major concern, as frequent machinery use degrades soil structure, reduces porosity, and ultimately impairs crop productivity. Among potential mitigation strategies to enhance soil resilience to machinery-induced compaction, biochar has shown promise in laboratory settings but remains
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Soil compaction from mechanized agriculture is a major concern, as frequent machinery use degrades soil structure, reduces porosity, and ultimately impairs crop productivity. Among potential mitigation strategies to enhance soil resilience to machinery-induced compaction, biochar has shown promise in laboratory settings but remains untested under real field conditions. To address this, we monitored soil in a Tuscan vineyard where biochar was applied at 16 and 32 Mg ha−1, compared to control, on both flat and sloped plots. Soil compaction was induced by 20 passes of a wheeled orchard tractor. Soil bulk density (BD) was measured before, immediately after, and one year following the initial passes, during which 19 additional machine passes occurred as part of the vineyard’s routine agronomic management. Initial results showed a significant BD increase (up to 12.8%) across all treatments, though biochar significantly limited soil compaction, regardless of the applied dose. After one year, in which the soil underwent further compaction, BD further increased across all treatments (up to 20.2%), with the steepest increase observed on the sloped terrain. At this stage, the mitigating effect of biochar on soil compaction was no longer evident. Our findings suggest that biochar may offer some short-term relief from compaction, but further investigations are needed to clarify its long-term effectiveness under field conditions.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Soil Management and Conservation: 2nd Edition)
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In Vitro Evaluation of Enhanced Efficiency Nitrogen Fertilizers Using Two Different Soils
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Samuel Okai, Xinhua Yin, Lori Allison Duncan, Daniel Yoder, Debasish Saha, Forbes Walker, Sydney Logwood, Jones Akuaku and Nutifafa Adotey
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030080 - 16 Jul 2025
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There are discrepancies regarding the effectiveness of enhanced efficiency nitrogen (N) fertilizer (EENF) products on ammonia loss from unincorporated, surface applications of urea-based fertilizers. Soil properties and management practices may account for the differences in the performance of EENF. However, few studies have
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There are discrepancies regarding the effectiveness of enhanced efficiency nitrogen (N) fertilizer (EENF) products on ammonia loss from unincorporated, surface applications of urea-based fertilizers. Soil properties and management practices may account for the differences in the performance of EENF. However, few studies have investigated the performance of urea- and urea ammonium nitrate (UAN)-based EENF on soils with contrasting properties. Controlled-environment incubation experiments were conducted on two soils with different properties to evaluate the efficacy of urea and UAN forms of EENF to minimize ammonia volatilization losses. The experiments were set up as a completely randomized design, with seven treatments replicated four times for 16 days. The N treatments, which were surface-applied at 134 kg N ha−1, included untreated urea, untreated UAN, urea+ANVOLTM (urease inhibitor product), UAN+ANVOLTM, environmentally smart nitrogen (ESN®), SUPERU® (urease and nitrification inhibitor product), and urea+Excelis® (urease and nitrification inhibitor product). In this study, urea was more susceptible to ammonia loss (24.12 and 26.49% of applied N) than UAN (5.24 and 16.17% of applied N), with lower ammonia volatility from soil with a pH of 5.8 when compared to 7.0. Urea-based EENF products performed better in soil with a pH of 5.8 compared to the soil with pH 7.0, except for ESN, which was not influenced by pH. In contrast, the UAN-based EENF was more effective in the high-pH soil (7.0). Across both soils, all EENFs reduced cumulative ammonia loss by 32–91% in urea and 27–70% in UAN, respectively, when compared to their untreated forms. The urea-based EENF formulations containing both nitrification and urease inhibitors were the least effective among the EENF types, performing particularly poorly in high-pH soil (pH 7.0). In conclusion, the efficacy of EENF is dependent on soil pH, N source, and the form of EENF. These findings underscore the importance of tailoring EENF applications to specific soil conditions and N sources to optimize N use efficiency (NUE), enhance economic returns for producers, and minimize environmental impacts.
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Open AccessArticle
Exploring Protist Communities in the Rhizosphere of Cultivated and Wild Date Palms
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Dana A. Abumaali, Sara H. Al-Hadidi, Talaat Ahmed, Ameni Ben Zineb, Abdul Rashid P. Rasheela, Amer Fayad Al-khis, Sowaid Ali Al-Malki, Mahmoud W. Yaish, Hassan Hassan, Roda Al-Thani and Juha M. Alatalo
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030079 - 15 Jul 2025
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Protists represent a major component of eukaryotic diversity within the soil microbiome, playing critical roles in mediating carbon and nitrogen cycling and influencing nutrient availability and soil health. Their diversity is shaped by multiple factors, including temperature, pH, organic matter content, and land
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Protists represent a major component of eukaryotic diversity within the soil microbiome, playing critical roles in mediating carbon and nitrogen cycling and influencing nutrient availability and soil health. Their diversity is shaped by multiple factors, including temperature, pH, organic matter content, and land use. In this study, we investigated the protist diversity in rhizosphere soils from both wild and cultivated date palm varieties. Our results identified nitrate, nitrite, calcium, and carbon content as key soil factors significantly correlated with protist diversity. Only 9.2% (42) of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were shared across all soil samples, suggesting that these taxa possess traits enabling adaptation to extreme environmental conditions. The dominant protist families belonged to Rhizaria, Alveolata, Amoebozoa, and Archaeplastida, primarily comprising bacterial consumers, alongside taxa from Stramenopiles, Opisthokonta, Hacrobia, and Excavata. At the class level, Filosa-Sarcomonadea, Colpodea, Variosea, Tubulinea, and Chlorophyceae were the most abundant. Filosa-Sarcomonadea and Colpodea were positively correlated with bacterial and fungal genera, suggesting their role as consumers, while Variosea showed a negative correlation with bacteria, reflecting predator-prey dynamics. Notably, the protist community composition in wild date palm rhizosphere soils was distinct from that in cultivated soils, with Opisthokonta being particularly abundant, likely reflecting adaptation to drought conditions. Overall, this study highlights the significant differences in protist diversity and community structure between wild and cultivated date palm ecosystems.
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Open AccessReview
Factors Influencing the Impact of Anaerobic Digestates on Soil Properties
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Péter Ragályi, Orsolya Szécsy, Nikolett Uzinger, Marianna Magyar, Anita Szabó and Márk Rékási
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030078 - 14 Jul 2025
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Green energy is expected to play an increasingly important role in the energy sector, so the volume of biogas production and the formation of anaerobic digestates is likely to increase in the future. A wide range of biodegradable organic materials are used in
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Green energy is expected to play an increasingly important role in the energy sector, so the volume of biogas production and the formation of anaerobic digestates is likely to increase in the future. A wide range of biodegradable organic materials are used in anaerobic digesters to produce biogas. This review focuses on the properties of anaerobic digestates and their effects on physical, chemical and biological soil parameters discussing the benefits, limitations and potential risks. Due to the variety of technologies and raw materials used, anaerobic digestates have diverse properties. Therefore, their impact on specific soil parameters, such as bulk density, aggregate stability, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), soil organic matter (SOM) or microbial activity can vary in magnitude and direction. These effects are also influenced by the variety of soils. Although digestates usually have a significant macro- and micronutrient content, their potentially toxic components or high salt content may limit their use. Despite the limitations, the application of anaerobic digestates generally has more advantages than disadvantages. The use of good-quality anaerobic digestates can improve the physical and chemical properties of the soil, increase soil nutrient and SOM content, as well as soil microbial activity.
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An Analysis of Soil Nematode Communities Across Diverse Horticultural Cropping Systems
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Ewa M. Furmanczyk, Dawid Kozacki, Morgane Ourry, Samuel Bickel, Expedito Olimi, Sylvie Masquelier, Sara Turci, Anne Bohr, Heinrich Maisel, Lorenzo D’Avino and Eligio Malusà
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030077 - 14 Jul 2025
Abstract
The analysis of soil nematode communities provides information on their impact on soil quality and the health of different agricultural cropping systems and soil management practices, which is necessary to evaluate their sustainability. Here, we evaluated the status of nematode communities and trophic
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The analysis of soil nematode communities provides information on their impact on soil quality and the health of different agricultural cropping systems and soil management practices, which is necessary to evaluate their sustainability. Here, we evaluated the status of nematode communities and trophic groups’ abundance in fifteen fields hosting different cropping systems and managed according to organic or conventional practices. The nematode population densities differed significantly across cropping systems and management types covering various European climatic zones (spanning 121 to 799 individuals per sample). Population density was affected by the duration of the cropping system, with the lowest value in the vegetable cropping system (on average about 300 individuals) and the highest in the long-term fruiting system (on average more than 500 individuals). The occurrence and abundance of the different trophic groups was partly dependent on the cropping system or the management method, particularly for the bacteria, fungal and plant feeders. The taxonomical classification of a subset of samples allowed us to identify 22 genera and one family (Dorylaimidae) within the five trophic groups. Few taxa were observed in all fields and samples (i.e., Rhabditis and Cephalobus), while Aphelenchoides or Pratylenchus were present in the majority of samples. Phosphorus content was the only soil chemical parameter showing a positive correlation with total nematode population and bacterial feeders’ absolute abundance. Based on the nematological ecological indices, all three cropping systems were characterized by disturbed soil conditions, conductive and dominated by bacterivorous nematodes. This knowledge could lead to a choice of soil management practices that sustain a transition toward healthy soils.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Microbial Ecology and Ecosystem Sustainability in a Changing Environment)
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Open AccessCorrection
Correction: Antonucci et al. Application of Self-Organizing Maps to Explore the Interactions of Microorganisms with Soil Properties in Fruit Crops Under Different Management and Pedo-Climatic Conditions. Soil Syst. 2025, 9, 10
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Francesca Antonucci, Simona Violino, Loredana Canfora, Małgorzata Tartanus, Ewa M. Furmanczyk, Sara Turci, Maria G. Tommasini, Nika Cvelbar Weber, Jaka Razinger, Morgane Ourry, Samuel Bickel, Thomas A. J. Passey, Anne Bohr, Heinrich Maisel, Massimo Pugliese, Francesco Vitali, Stefano Mocali, Federico Pallottino, Simone Figorilli, Anne D. Jungblut, Hester J. van Schalkwyk, Corrado Costa and Eligio Malusàadd
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Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030076 - 14 Jul 2025
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Anne D [...]
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Use of Modern Statistical Methods in Soil Science)
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Assessment of Soil and Plant Nutrient Status, Spectral Reflectance, and Growth Performance of Various Dragon Fruit (Pitaya) Species Cultivated Under High Tunnel Systems
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Priyanka Belbase, Krishnaswamy Jayachandran and Maruthi Sridhar Balaji Bhaskar
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030075 - 14 Jul 2025
Abstract
Dragon fruit or pitaya (Hylocereus sp.) is an exotic tropical plant gaining popularity in the United States as it is a nutrient-rich fruit with mildly sweet flavor and a good source of fiber. Although high tunnels are being used to produce specialized
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Dragon fruit or pitaya (Hylocereus sp.) is an exotic tropical plant gaining popularity in the United States as it is a nutrient-rich fruit with mildly sweet flavor and a good source of fiber. Although high tunnels are being used to produce specialized crops, little is known about how pitaya growth, physiology and nutrient uptake change throughout the production period. This study aims to evaluate the impact of high tunnels and varying rates of vermicompost on three varieties of pitaya, White Pitaya (WP), Yellow Pitaya (YP), and Red Pitaya (RP), to assess the soil and plant nutrient dynamics, spectral reflectance changes and plant growth. Plants were assessed at 120 and 365 DAP (Days After Plantation). YP thrived in a high tunnel compared to an open environment in terms of survival before 120 DAP, with no diseased incidence and higher nutrient retention. The nutrient accumulation in the RP, WP, and YP shoot samples 120 DAP were ranked in the following order, K > N > Ca > Mg > P > Fe > Zn > B > Mn, while 365 DAP, they were ranked as K > Ca > N > Mg > P > S > Fe > Zn > B > Mn. The nutrient accumulation in the RP, WP, and YP, soil samples 120 and 365 DAP were ranked in the following order: N > Ca > Mg > P > K > Na > Zn. Soil nutrients showed a higher concentration of Na and K grown inside the high tunnels in all three pitaya species due to the increased concentration of soluble salts. Spectral reflectance analysis showed that RP and WP had higher reflectance in the visible and NIR region compared to YP due to their higher plant biomass and canopy cover. This study emphasizes the importance of environmental conditions, nutrition strategies, and plant physiology in the different pitaya plant species. The results suggest that high tunnels with appropriate vermicompost can enhance pitaya growth and development.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Fertility Management, Mitigating GHG Emissions and Sustainable Agriculture: 2nd Edition)
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Pyrogenic Transformation and Carbon Sequestration in Forested Bog Soils of the Middle Taiga in Northeastern European Russia
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Nikolay M. Gorbach, Viktor V. Startsev, Evgenia V. Yakovleva, Anton S. Mazur and Alexey A. Dymov
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030074 - 11 Jul 2025
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A comprehensive paleoecological study of a forested bog located in the middle taiga subzone of northeastern European Russia was carried out. According to the 14C radiocarbon dating and botanical composition analysis, the bog began forming 8200 calibrated years ago, evolving in three
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A comprehensive paleoecological study of a forested bog located in the middle taiga subzone of northeastern European Russia was carried out. According to the 14C radiocarbon dating and botanical composition analysis, the bog began forming 8200 calibrated years ago, evolving in three stages from grassy wetlands to its current state as a pine-Sphagnum peatland. Analysis revealed substantial carbon storage (81.4 kg m−2) within the peat deposit. Macrocharcoal particles were consistently present throughout the peat deposits, demonstrating continuous fire activity across the bog’s developing. High charcoal particle accumulation rates occurred not only during warm periods like the Holocene thermal maximum but also during colder and wetter periods. These periods include recent centuries, when high charcoal accumulation rates are likely due to increased human activity. Statistical analysis showed significant relationships between macrocharcoal content and several peat characteristics: higher charcoal levels correlated with increased soil carbon (r = 0.6), greater aromatic compounds (r = 0.8), and elevated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (r = 0.7), all with p < 0.05. These findings highlight how fire has consistently shaped this ecosystem’s development and carbon storage capacity over millennia, with apparent intensification during recent centuries potentially linked to anthropogenic influences on fire regimes in the boreal zone.
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Moss Biochar Facilitates Root Colonization of Halotolerant Halomonas salifodinae for Promoting Plant Growth Under Saline–Alkali Stress
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Wenyue Wang, Yunlong Liu, Zirun Zhao, Rou Liu, Fang Wang, Zhuo Zhang and Qilin Yu
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030073 - 11 Jul 2025
Abstract
The utilization of the widely distributed saline–alkali lands by planting forage grasses is a hot topic. However, the promotion of plant growth remains a great challenge during the exploration of this stressful soil. While halotolerant bacteria are beneficial for plants against saline–alkali stress,
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The utilization of the widely distributed saline–alkali lands by planting forage grasses is a hot topic. However, the promotion of plant growth remains a great challenge during the exploration of this stressful soil. While halotolerant bacteria are beneficial for plants against saline–alkali stress, their stable colonization on plant roots should be further strengthened. In this study, we investigated the effect of moss biochar on the root colonization of the exogenous halotolerant Halomonas salifodinae isolated from saline lake sediments. During the incubation with the bacteria, the biochar strongly bound the bacterium and induced biofilm formation on the biochar surface. When the biochar and the bacterium were added into the culturing soil of the forage grass Medicago sativa, the biochar remarkably assisted the root binding and biofilm formation of this bacterium on the plant roots. Under the biochar–bacterium combined treatment, the numbers of total bacteria, halotolerant bacteria, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria increased from 105.5 CFU/g soil to 107.2 CFU/g soil, from 104.5 CFU/g soil to 106.1 CFU/g soil, and from 104.7 CFU/g soil to 106.3 CFU/g soil, respectively. After 30 days of culturing, the biochar and the bacterium in combination increased the plant height from 10.3 cm to 36 cm, and enhanced the accumulation of chlorophyll a, reducing sugars, soluble proteins, and superoxide dismutase in the leaves. Moreover, the combined treatment increased the activity of soil enzymes, including peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, and urease. Meanwhile, the levels of various cations in the rhizosphere soil were reduced by the combined treatment, e.g., Na+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, etc., indicating an improvement in the soil quality. This study developed the biochar–halotolerant bacterium joint strategy to improve the yield of forage grasses in saline–alkali soil.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Community Structure and Function in Soils)
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Open AccessArticle
Drought Stress Enhances Mycorrhizal Colonization in Rice Landraces Across Agroecological Zones of Far-West Nepal
by
Urmila Dhami, Nabin Lamichhane, Sudan Bhandari, Gunanand Pant, Lal Bahadur Thapa, Chandra Prasad Pokhrel, Nikolaos Monokrousos and Ram Kailash Prasad Yadav
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030072 - 9 Jul 2025
Abstract
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Mycorrhizal symbiosis in rice enhances drought adaptation but there are limited studies regarding the frequency and amplitude of mycorrhizae colonization in traditional landraces. This study investigates mycorrhizal colonization frequency (FMS) and intensity (IRS) in 12 rice landraces across three agroecological zones (Tarai, Inner-Tarai,
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Mycorrhizal symbiosis in rice enhances drought adaptation but there are limited studies regarding the frequency and amplitude of mycorrhizae colonization in traditional landraces. This study investigates mycorrhizal colonization frequency (FMS) and intensity (IRS) in 12 rice landraces across three agroecological zones (Tarai, Inner-Tarai, Mid-hill) of Far-West Nepal under drought stress. Field experiments exposed landraces to control, intermittent, and complete drought treatments, with soil properties and root colonization analyzed. Results revealed FMS and IRS variations driven by soil composition and genotype. Mid-hill soils (acidic, high organic matter) showed lower FMS but elevated IRS under drought, while neutral pH in Tarai and silt/clay-rich soils supported higher FMS. Sandy soil in Inner-Tarai also promoted FMS. Drought significantly increased IRS, particularly in Anjana and Sauthiyari (Tarai), Chiudi and Shanti (Inner-Tarai), and Chamade and Jhumke (Mid-hill), which exhibited IRS surges of 171–388%. These landraces demonstrated symbiotic resilience, linking mycorrhizal networks to enhanced nutrient/water uptake. Soil organic matter and nutrient levels amplified IRS responses, underscoring fertility’s role in adaptation. FMS ranged from 50 to 100%, and IRS 1.20–19.74%, with intensity being a stronger drought-tolerance indicator than frequency. The study highlights the conservation urgency for these landraces, as traditional varieties decline due to hybrid adoption. Their drought-inducible mycorrhizal symbiosis offers a sustainable strategy for climate-resilient rice production, emphasizing soil–genotype interactions in agroecological adaptation.
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Open AccessArticle
Ameliorating Saline Clay Soils with Corncob Biochar for Improving Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Growth and Yield
by
Marcos Alfonso Lastiri-Hernández, Javier Pérez-Inocencio, Eloy Conde-Barajas, María de la Luz Xochilt Negrete-Rodríguez and Dioselina Álvarez-Bernal
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030071 - 8 Jul 2025
Abstract
Biochar is a carbon-rich material produced through the pyrolysis of agricultural waste. It effectively enhances the physical, chemical, and biological properties of salinity-affected soils. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the world’s third most important legume crop, currently cultivated in over 50 countries.
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Biochar is a carbon-rich material produced through the pyrolysis of agricultural waste. It effectively enhances the physical, chemical, and biological properties of salinity-affected soils. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the world’s third most important legume crop, currently cultivated in over 50 countries. However, no study has yet established recommended biochar application rates for this crop under saline soil conditions. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the chemical properties of a clay soil following the application of varying rates of biochar and NaCl, and to evaluate their subsequent effects on the growth and yield of Cicer arietinum L. To evaluate the effect of biochar, a completely randomized experimental design with ten replicates was implemented. The biochar was produced from corncobs (Zea mays) and applied at two rates (1.5% and 3%). Soil salinity levels were classified into three groups: non-saline (S1 = 1.2 dS·m−1), low/moderate salinity (S2 = 4.2 dS·m−1), and moderate salinity (S3 = 5.6 dS·m−1). The treatments were placed in pots for 100 days. The results demonstrated that biochar applications at 1.5% and 3% rates improved both soil chemical properties (pH, EC, SAR, and ESP) and the growth of C. arietinum across all evaluated treatments. The 3% biochar treatment showed superior effects compared to the 1.5% application. Therefore, biochar application in C. arietinum production emerges as an effective agronomic strategy to mitigate abiotic stress while simultaneously enhancing crop productivity and sustainability.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Soil Management: Food Supply, Environmental Impacts, and Socioeconomic Functions: 2nd Edition)
Open AccessArticle
Sediment Fingerprinting Enables the Determination of Soil Erosion Sources and Sediment Transport Processes in a Topographically Complex Nile Headwater Basin
by
Amartya K. Saha, Christopher L. Dutton, Marc Manyifika, Sarah C. Jantzi and Sylvere N. Sirikare
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030070 - 4 Jul 2025
Abstract
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Sediment fingerprinting was utilized to identify potential hotspots of soil erosion and sediment transport pathways in the Nile Nyabarongo Upper Catchment (NNYU) in Rwanda, where rivers and reservoirs are suffering from alarmingly high levels of sedimentation. Sediment fingerprinting is a practical approach used
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Sediment fingerprinting was utilized to identify potential hotspots of soil erosion and sediment transport pathways in the Nile Nyabarongo Upper Catchment (NNYU) in Rwanda, where rivers and reservoirs are suffering from alarmingly high levels of sedimentation. Sediment fingerprinting is a practical approach used to identify erosional hotspots and sediment transport processes in highly mountainous regions undergoing swift land use transformation. This technique involves a statistical comparison of the elemental composition of suspended sediments in river water with the elemental composition of soils belonging to different geological formations present in the catchment, thereby determining the sources of the suspended sediment. Suspended sediments were sampled five times over dry and wet seasons in all major headwater tributaries, as well as the main river channel, and compared with soils from respective delineated watersheds. Elemental composition was obtained using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and elements were chosen that could reliably distinguish between the various geological types. The final results indicate different levels of sediment contribution from different geological types. A three-level intervention priority system was devised, with Level 1 indicating the areas with the most serious erosion. Potential sources were located on an administrative map, with the highest likely erosion over the study period (Level 1) occurring in Kabuga cell in the Mwogo sub-catchment, Nganzo and Nyamirama cells in the Nyagako sub-catchment and Kanyana cell in the NNYU downstream sub-catchment. This map enables the pinpointing of site visits in an extensive and rugged terrain to verify the areas and causes of erosion and the pathways of sediment transport. Sediment concentrations (mg L−1) were the highest in the Secoko and Satinsyi tributaries. The composition of suspended sediment was seen to be temporally and spatially dynamic at each sampling point, suggesting the need for an adequate number of sampling locations to identify erosion hotspots in a large mountainous watershed. Apart from prioritizing rehabilitation locations, the detailed understanding of critical zone soil–land cover–climate processes is an important input for developing region-specific watershed management and policy guidelines.
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Open AccessArticle
Free-Range Chickens Reared Within an Olive Grove Influenced the Soil Microbial Community and Carbon Sequestration
by
Luisa Massaccesi, Rosita Marabottini, Chiara Poesio, Simona Mattioli, Cesare Castellini and Alberto Agnelli
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(3), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9030069 - 3 Jul 2025
Abstract
Although the benefits of rational grazing by polygastric animals are well known, little is understood about how chicken grazing affects soil biological health and its capacity to store organic matter. This study aimed to assess the impact of long-term free-range chicken grazing in
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Although the benefits of rational grazing by polygastric animals are well known, little is understood about how chicken grazing affects soil biological health and its capacity to store organic matter. This study aimed to assess the impact of long-term free-range chicken grazing in an olive grove on the soil chemical and biochemical properties, including the total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), microbial biomass (Cmic), basal respiration, and microbial community structure, as well as the soil’s capability to stock organic carbon and total nitrogen. A field experiment was conducted in an olive grove grazed by chickens for over 20 years, with the animal load decreasing with distance from the poultry houses. At 20 m, where the chicken density was highest, the soils showed reduced OC and TN contents and a decline in fungal biomass. This was mainly due to the loss of both aboveground vegetation and root biomass from intensive grazing. At 50 m, where grazing pressure was lower, the soil OC, TN, and microbial community size and activity were similar to those in a control, ungrazed area. These findings suggest that high chicken density can negatively affect soil health, while moderate grazing allows for the recovery of vegetation and soil organic matter. Rational management of free-range chicken grazing, particularly through the control of chicken density or managing grazing time and frequency, is therefore recommended to preserve soil functions and fertility.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Soil Management: Food Supply, Environmental Impacts, and Socioeconomic Functions: 2nd Edition)
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