Journal Description
Nitrogen
Nitrogen
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on the whole field of nitrogen research published quarterly online by MDPI.
- Open Access—free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within ESCI (Web of Science), Scopus, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 20.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
- Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Agricultural and Biological Sciences (miscellaneous))
- Recognition of Reviewers: APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer-review and reviewer names published annually in the journal.
Impact Factor:
1.6 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
1.6 (2023)
Latest Articles
Nitrate–Conductivity Correlations in Aqueous Environments: From Standard Solutions to Natural Water Bodies
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020041 - 31 May 2025
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The relationship between nitrate concentration and electrical conductivity (EC) in aqueous environments is crucial for water quality assessment, especially in regions with limited laboratory access and monitoring resources. This study investigates nitrate–EC correlations across standard solutions and various natural water sources, identifying where
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The relationship between nitrate concentration and electrical conductivity (EC) in aqueous environments is crucial for water quality assessment, especially in regions with limited laboratory access and monitoring resources. This study investigates nitrate–EC correlations across standard solutions and various natural water sources, identifying where EC may serve as a reliable proxy for nitrate. In the standard and controlled laboratory solution reference samples, a strong linear correlation in controlled environments (R2 ≈ 0.99) between the nitrate concentration and EC was observed, providing a reliable baseline for calibration and suggesting that EC-based estimation is feasible under ideal conditions. In shallow wells, particularly in agricultural zones, a moderate-to-strong correlation was also observed, likely due to surface contamination from fertilizers. Natural water bodies exhibit more complex relationships owing to environmental factors and their ionic composition. In contrast, deep groundwater, often subjected to geological filtration and treatment processes, displayed inconsistent relationships, underscoring the complexity of using EC as a nitrate proxy in such systems. These findings suggest that EC can support preliminary screening for nitrate in specific water types, particularly in agricultural and rural settings, while emphasizing the need for site-specific calibration and caution against overgeneralization. The study offers a foundational framework for employing EC as a low-cost, rapid monitoring tool in resource-constrained environments.
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Open AccessArticle
Optimizing Rice Yield and Heat Stress Resilience Through Nitrogen Top Dressing Before Panicle Emergence
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Shafiqullah Aryan, Gulbuddin Gulab, Safiullah Habibi, Tayebullah Zahid, Zabihullah Safi, Nasratullah Habibi, Abdul Basir Mahmoodzada, Mohammad Wasif Amin, Ijaz Ahmad Samsor and Kenji Erie
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020040 - 29 May 2025
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The increased frequency of extreme heat stress events due to climate change is adversely impacting rice yield. Nitrogen (N) is an essential element in the synthesis of chlorophyll in rice, contributing substantially to the achievement of spikelet fertility and addressing the high yields.
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The increased frequency of extreme heat stress events due to climate change is adversely impacting rice yield. Nitrogen (N) is an essential element in the synthesis of chlorophyll in rice, contributing substantially to the achievement of spikelet fertility and addressing the high yields. Two experiments were conducted in Japan and Afghanistan in 2020 and 2022, respectively, utilizing IR64 and Nipponbare (NPB) varieties to elucidate the efficacy of N top-dressing on spikelet fertility and yield of rice under heat stress conditions. In experiment I, the treatments involved were based on N application before panicle emergence in pots, including (1) control (fertilized at the tillering stage), (2) control + N topdressing, (3) heat stress (fertilized at the tillering stage), and (4) heat stress + N topdressing. Experiment II consisted of (1) control (basal dressing at the tillering stage) and (2) control + N topdressing, which was conducted under field conditions. Results showed that N application significantly (p < 0.05) increased SPAD values and spikelet fertility rates in both experiments. A positive correlation (range; r = 0.83–0.98) was observed between enhanced SPAD values and spikelet fertility rates in IR64 and NPB rice varieties under both ambient and heat stress conditions. Moreover, there were notable increases in photosynthetic rate (7.4% to 52.6%) and leaf transpiration. N top dressing significantly (p < 0.05) increased the panicle length, panicle weight, number of secondary branches/panicle, filled grain/panicle, total spikelets/panicle, and yield/plant. However, there was no significant difference in the number of primary branches per panicle and 1000-grain weight. In addition, the number of unfilled grains/panicle decreased from 5.5 to 49.7% with N top dressing in both experiments. Applying N as a top dressing improved the spikelet fertility percentage and other yield components, resulting in a high yield/plant.
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Open AccessArticle
Multivariate Analyses of Soil Properties and CO2 Emissions Under Long-Term Fertilization and Crop Rotation in Luvic Chernozem
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Gergana Kuncheva, Galin Gynchev, Jonita Perfanova, Milena Kercheva, Lev Tribis and Hristo Valchovski
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020039 - 22 May 2025
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The key objectives of contemporary agriculture are restoring biodiversity, preserving ecosystem health, reducing the effects of climate change, and producing safe and healthy foods. Maintaining high soil fertility while reducing greenhouse gas emissions requires a precise assessment of how fertilization and crop rotation
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The key objectives of contemporary agriculture are restoring biodiversity, preserving ecosystem health, reducing the effects of climate change, and producing safe and healthy foods. Maintaining high soil fertility while reducing greenhouse gas emissions requires a precise assessment of how fertilization and crop rotation affect carbon and nutrient cycles in agroecosystems. Fertilization affects soil conditions, which alters the environment for soil microbial development and influences the number and composition of soil microbial communities, leading to changes in nutrient and carbon cycling. There is a lack of long-term experimental data on the impact of fertilizer treatments on soil CO2 emissions, soil microbial communities, and their interactions. The novelty of this study is that it identified the fertilization effects on soil carbon sequestration, soil properties, and microbial communities in the context of a long-term fertilizer experiment in Luvic Chernozem. The fertilization treatments that were continuously pplied for 64 years under a four-crop (wheat, barley, corn, and bean) rotation were nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), NP, NK, PK, NPK, and control. The chemical and microbiological soil properties and soil CO2 emissions were monitored. The highest organic carbon content was observed under the NPK (1.42%) and NP (1.43%) treatments. N fertilizer application most significantly affected soil properties, including pH, electrical conductivity, and soil organic carbon content, altering the environment for soil microbial development and influencing the number and composition of soil microbial communities. On average, the field-measured soil C-CO2 emissions were the most intensive under NP (2.76 kg ha−1 h−1), NPK (2.83 kg ha−1 h−1), and PK (2.51 kg ha−1 day−1) treatments.
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Open AccessArticle
Analysis of GmERF5 Response to the Rhizobial Type III Effector NopAA Underlying the Nodule in Soybeans
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Lianheng Xia, Yunshan Song, Tong Yu, Ying Pei, Hongwei Jiang, Qingshan Chen and Dawei Xin
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020038 - 21 May 2025
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Soybean, an important leguminous crop valued for its high protein and oil content, obtains most of its nitrogen through symbiotic fixation processes. The symbiosis between soybeans and rhizobium can provide sufficient nitrogen for soybean growth. However, the signaling pathways underlying the establishment of
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Soybean, an important leguminous crop valued for its high protein and oil content, obtains most of its nitrogen through symbiotic fixation processes. The symbiosis between soybeans and rhizobium can provide sufficient nitrogen for soybean growth. However, the signaling pathways underlying the establishment of the symbiosis are not so clear, especially the rhizobial type III effector-induced host response. In this study, we found that the single mutant HH103 nopAA::kan significantly affected the nodule number in soybeans. To further demonstrate the NopAA-triggered response in soybeans. Initial quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) tests showed that NopAA affects the expression of the soybean gene GmERF5, which was significantly upregulated upon inoculation with HH103 nopAA::kan, acting as a positive regulator of nodulation. The direct interaction between NopAA and GmERF5 was confirmed through yeast-two hybrid analysis. Furthermore, overexpression of GmERF5 in hairy roots indicated that GmERF5 may underlie the nodule phenotype of soybeans in response to NopAA. These findings provide new insights into the mechanisms by which soybean genes respond to rhizobial type III effectors to regulate symbiosis.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Interactions with Plants: Advancing Nitrogen Fixation, Uptake, and Utilization)
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Sustainable Treatment of Landfill Leachate Using Sugar Lime Sludge for Irrigation and Nitrogen Recovery
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Tilila Baganna, Assmaa Choukri and Khalid Fares
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020037 - 20 May 2025
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Water scarcity is a global crisis and of particular concern in arid regions like Morocco. One creative solution is mining unusual water sources, such as landfill leachate. The presence of nitrogen in the sediment was studied as part of the use of sugar
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Water scarcity is a global crisis and of particular concern in arid regions like Morocco. One creative solution is mining unusual water sources, such as landfill leachate. The presence of nitrogen in the sediment was studied as part of the use of sugar lime sludge in treating landfill leachate for irrigation purposes. A volume of 40 L of landfill leachate was treated with three different concentrations of sugar lime sludge (25%, 35%, and 50%). After homogenization and agitation of the mixture for 24 to 36 h, it was permitted to settle through the concrete decantate and supernatant. Nitrogen was efficiently decanted into the sediment during the composting process with green waste, enhancing the quality of the finished compost. The supernatants underwent physicochemical and microbiological analyses to ascertain their suitability for irrigation. The findings showed that the number of fecal streptococci was decreased by 99.13% at a 25% concentration of sugar lime sludge. The percentage of organic matter in the sediment rose from 10% to 40%, suggesting that the leachate had partially depolluted. The pH and electrical conductivity of the supernatants were within irrigation guidelines. The safety of diluted supernatants for plant germination was verified by phytotoxicity experiments conducted on maize seeds. The compost made from the decantate and green waste showed acceptable physical and chemical properties. Statistical analysis was conducted using JAMOVI software version 2.6.26. One-way ANOVA was used to assess the significance of treatment effects on microbiological and physicochemical parameters. The results confirmed statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) between the sludge concentrations, supporting the effectiveness of the treatment process. This study demonstrates how sugar lime sludge can be used to turn landfill leachate into a sustainable and safe irrigation water source, resolving environmental issues and promoting creative water management techniques.
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Optimizing Nitrogen Management for Sustainable Wheat Production in Semi-Arid Subtropical Environments: Impact on Growth, Physio-Biochemical, and Yield Attributes
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Barira Shoukat Hafiza, Wajid Ishaque, Muhammad Akhtar, Muhammad Yousaf Shani, M. Azmat, William L. Bauerle, Mehdi Rahimi and Muhammad Yasin Ashraf
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020036 - 16 May 2025
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Nitrogen fertilization plays a critical role in promoting plant growth, improving physiological and biochemical traits, and enhancing wheat productivity. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of seven nitrogen (N) doses—0, 45, 90, 135, 180, 225, and 270 kg N ha−1—on
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Nitrogen fertilization plays a critical role in promoting plant growth, improving physiological and biochemical traits, and enhancing wheat productivity. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of seven nitrogen (N) doses—0, 45, 90, 135, 180, 225, and 270 kg N ha−1—on wheat performance under semi-arid subtropical conditions over three consecutive growing seasons (2015–2018). A randomized complete block design (RCBD) was used to assess a comprehensive set of agronomic, physiological, biochemical, and nutritional parameters. Key factors examined included grain yield, above-ground biomass, nitrogen harvest index, total nitrogen content in grains and straw, and physiological traits such as photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, and the accumulation of soluble proteins, sugars, and amino acids. The study also incorporated multivariate statistical techniques, such as multi-trait genotype–ideotype distance index (MGIDI), principal component analysis (PCA), and descriptive statistics to identify the most effective nitrogen dose. Results indicated that 180 kg N ha−1 (T4) was the most effective treatment for improving wheat growth, physiological efficiency, and grain yield, with 135 kg N ha−1 (T3) also showing favorable outcomes. In contrast, higher doses (225 and 270 kg N ha−1) led to diminished performance, suggesting a threshold beyond which nitrogen becomes counterproductive. These findings support 180 kg N ha−1 as the optimal dose for maximizing yield and biochemical quality while contributing to more sustainable and profitable wheat production.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen: Advances in Plant Stress Research)
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Variation in Leaf C, N, and P Stoichiometric Characteristics of Populus euphratica Communities in a Desert Riparian Ecosystem of Northwest China
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Xiaolong Zhang, Xianmeng Liu, Lijiang Shi, Yinbo Zhang, Jingwei Wang, Feng Gao, Hao Qin, Min Shi, Yongji Wang and Yuanrun Zheng
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020035 - 16 May 2025
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Despite extensive research on how climate and environmental factors influence leaf stoichiometry at national and global scales, experimental evidence on their effects at the community level remains limited, particularly in extremely arid regions. Herein, we investigated the leaf stoichiometry including carbon (C), nitrogen
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Despite extensive research on how climate and environmental factors influence leaf stoichiometry at national and global scales, experimental evidence on their effects at the community level remains limited, particularly in extremely arid regions. Herein, we investigated the leaf stoichiometry including carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) along a fine-scale riparian gradient (50–1250 m from the riverbank) in an extremely arid Populus euphratica forest in northwest China. Our results show that the community-averaged leaf total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) contents were 442.58 mg/g, 21.69 mg/g, and 1.18 mg/g, respectively. The community-averaged C:N, C:P, and N:P ratios were 20.74, 379.97, and 18.43, respectively. Compared to findings from other studies, the P. euphratica community exhibited lower leaf TC and TP contents but higher TN content and N:P ratios. A high N:P ratio (mean = 18.43, N:P > 16) suggests that the P. euphratica community is more susceptible to phosphorus limitation. Along the riparian gradient, community-averaged leaf TC, C:N, and C:P increased significantly, reaching their maximum (479.49 mg/g, 27.12, and 478.06, respectively) at 1250 m from the riverbank. Conversely, leaf TN and TP contents, as well as N:P, decreased significantly with increasing distance from the river, reaching their minimum values (17.49 mg/g, 0.99 mg/g, and 17.17, respectively) at 1100–1250 m. Soil available phosphorus, soil water content, soil bulk density, and soil electrical conductivity significantly influenced the leaf stoichiometry of the P. euphratica community, collectively explaining 61.78% of the total variation. Among these factors, soil water content had the most pronounced effect, surpassing soil available phosphorus, bulk density, and electrical conductivity in shaping leaf stoichiometric characteristics. Our findings indicate that at fine spatial scales, the distribution of leaf nutrients and stoichiometry seem to be predominantly influenced by local-scale factors such as soil water content, soil nutrient levels, and salt stress; P. euphratica forests would be experiencing more negative impacts in leaf nutrients and stoichiometry due to increased droughts or salt stress.
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Integrating Agronomic and Molecular Advancements to Enhance Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) and Promote Sustainable Rice Production
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Uttam Bahadur Kunwar, Nazer Manzoor, Jiancheng Wen and Naba Raj Pandit
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020034 - 14 May 2025
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Rice is a major crop for half of the world’s population, and nitrogen (N) fertilizers play a crucial role in its production. However, imbalanced N fertilizer uses and traditional fertilization practices have led to low nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), increased N footprints, and
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Rice is a major crop for half of the world’s population, and nitrogen (N) fertilizers play a crucial role in its production. However, imbalanced N fertilizer uses and traditional fertilization practices have led to low nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), increased N footprints, and reduced rice yields and farmers’ income. There are limited studies where the integration of both agronomic and molecular advancements to enhance NUE is discussed, particularly in developing countries. This review highlights novel agronomic and molecular strategies to enhance NUE, rice yields, and profitability, while minimizing environmental impact. The agronomic strategies include the 4R Nutrient Stewardship framework, enhanced efficiency nitrogen fertilizers (EENFs), nano-fertilizers, biochar-based fertilizers, biological N fixation, and sensor-based fertilizer management in major rice-growing countries. The molecular mechanisms focus on N uptake, assimilation, and utilization, highlighting the role of hormones, key genes, transcription factors (TFs), and regulatory pathways. Moreover, we examine promising rice genotypes and cultivars with improved NUE and grain yield. Additionally, this paper offers deep insights into recent advancements in molecular genetics, such as multi-omics approaches (transcriptomics, metabolomics, and metagenomics), the Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS), Quantitative Traits Loci mapping (QTLs), Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) analysis, and Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR-Cas9)-mediated genome editing, which serve as valuable tools for developing rice cultivars with enhanced NUE and grain yield.
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Open AccessArticle
Impact of Nitrogen Fertilization on Rosemary: Assessment of Physiological Traits, Vegetation Indices, and Environmental Resource Use Efficiency
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Christos A. Dordas
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020033 - 2 May 2025
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Rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus L.) is a versatile and resilient plant with significant culinary, medicinal, and ecological value. This study evaluates the impact of four nitrogen (N) fertilization levels (0, 50, 100, and 150 kg N ha⁻¹) on the morphological, physiological, and agronomic
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Rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus L.) is a versatile and resilient plant with significant culinary, medicinal, and ecological value. This study evaluates the impact of four nitrogen (N) fertilization levels (0, 50, 100, and 150 kg N ha⁻¹) on the morphological, physiological, and agronomic traits, as well as vegetative indices, of rosemary over two growing seasons (2022 and 2023). The results indicate that plant height and leaf area index (LAI) increased with N application. Additionally, physiological characteristics such as chlorophyll content, photosynthetic efficiency, and assimilation rates (A) increased by an average of 32%, 17%, and 55%, respectively, compared to the control. Biomass production also improved with N fertilization, with yields rising by 32% in 2022 and 58% in 2023. Furthermore, both essential oil concentration and essential oil yield were enhanced by N application. Radiation use efficiency (RUE), water use efficiency (WUE), agronomic efficiency (AE), and partial factor productivity (PFP) also increased, indicating more efficient utilization of environmental resources. Moreover, higher N rates consistently enhanced vegetation indices, reflecting improved plant health, greenness, biomass, photosynthetic activity, and energy utilization. Therefore, this study highlights that the optimal N range appears to balance biomass yield and essential oil yield while maximizing the efficiency of environmental resource use.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Nitrogen in Soils and Plants: Recent Methods, Soil Properties and Plant Characteristics)
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Linking Satellite and Ground Observations of NO2 in Spanish Cities: Influence of Meteorology and O3
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Carlos Morillas, Sergio Álvarez, José C. M. Pires, Adrián Jesús García and Sara Martínez
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020032 - 2 May 2025
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In Spain, several major cities face high rates of avoidable deaths due to NO2 exposure. Understanding NO2 atmospheric dynamics is essential to support public health efforts and policymaking. Recent satellite products have proven useful in characterizing urban atmospheric composition in various
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In Spain, several major cities face high rates of avoidable deaths due to NO2 exposure. Understanding NO2 atmospheric dynamics is essential to support public health efforts and policymaking. Recent satellite products have proven useful in characterizing urban atmospheric composition in various regions. This study compares NO2 concentration data from in situ air quality monitoring networks and the Sentinel-5P TROPOMI satellite in Spain’s three largest cities (Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia), alongside O3 levels —due to its close photochemical relationship with NOx—wind speed and direction, temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation. Data from 2022 were analyzed using Pearson correlation coefficients and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to identify key relationships and patterns. Results showed a consistent negative correlation between NO2 and O3, wind speed, temperature, and solar radiation. Differences between in situ and satellite data were more pronounced in coastal cities, influenced by wind patterns and urban morphology (Madrid: r = 0.86, v = 1.34 m/s; Valencia: r = 0.68, v = 2.97 m/s; Barcelona: r = 0.65, v = 8.04 m/s). These insights enhance the understanding of NO2 behavior in urban environments and support the use of remote sensing to estimate surface-level pollution in areas lacking ground-based monitoring infrastructure. This is the first study in Spain to jointly evaluate NO2 from satellite and in situ data across multiple cities, linking pollutant concentrations with meteorological and chemical drivers to improve surface-level estimation strategies and support air quality assessment in under-monitored areas.
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Open AccessReview
Biochar Characteristics and Application: Effects on Soil Ecosystem Services and Nutrient Dynamics for Enhanced Crop Yields
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Ojone Anyebe, Fatihu Kabir Sadiq, Bonface Ombasa Manono and Tiroyaone Albertinah Matsika
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020031 - 27 Apr 2025
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Although intensive farming practices have greatly increased food production, they have undermined the soil ecosystem services on which agriculture depends. Biochar application in soils is increasingly gaining worldwide acceptance as a means of addressing these environmental challenges while enhancing agricultural productivity. Biochar offers
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Although intensive farming practices have greatly increased food production, they have undermined the soil ecosystem services on which agriculture depends. Biochar application in soils is increasingly gaining worldwide acceptance as a means of addressing these environmental challenges while enhancing agricultural productivity. Biochar offers dual benefits that support food security and ecological well-being through enhanced soil fertility and plant nutrition. These benefits include water retention, promotion of soil microbial functioning, carbon sequestration, and nutrient absorption, among others. In spite of these known benefits, many studies continue to emphasize the roles biochar plays in enhancing soil health and crop yields but often neglect the influence of biochar characteristics, which are key in optimizing these soil ecosystem services. Thus, it is important to understand how biochar characteristics influence soil in supporting, regulating, and provisioning ecosystem services. This review offers a comprehensive and integrative assessment on how biochar’s characteristics influence key soil ecosystem services rather than examining each service individually. The focus is on how biochar feedstock material and pyrolysis temperature determine the characteristics of generated biochar and how these characteristics influence biochar’s efficacy in supplying soil ecosystem services and nutrient dynamics for enhanced crop yields.
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Open AccessArticle
Activated Carbon Reduced Nitrate Loss from Agricultural Soil but Did Not Enhance Wheat Yields
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Manhattan Lebrun and Sylvain Bourgerie
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020030 - 23 Apr 2025
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Wheat requires a high quantity of nitrogen to grow efficiently and produce a high number of nutritious grains (=high yield). The consequences of fertilizer use in uncontrolled conditions are well known, e.g., nitrogen leakage leading to impacts on ecosystems. One solution to reduce
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Wheat requires a high quantity of nitrogen to grow efficiently and produce a high number of nutritious grains (=high yield). The consequences of fertilizer use in uncontrolled conditions are well known, e.g., nitrogen leakage leading to impacts on ecosystems. One solution to reduce these impacts could be activated carbon, which is already used to treat wastewater. In this study, we assessed the efficiency of four activated carbon formulations applied to two agricultural soils in a column leaching test, a greenhouse pot experiment, and a field experiment. In the latter two experiments, wheat was grown with one dose of one selected activated carbon and several nitrogen fertilization conditions. The goal was to find an activated carbon that could stabilize nitrate while improving soil health and thus increase wheat yields. We showed that nitrogen leaching reduction (between 59% and 79% when significant in the column test) was dependent on the raw material used and the activation process. The controlled pot experiment demonstrated that wheat growth was dependent on nitrogen application (60 to 80% increase) and that the activated carbon addition did not enhance yields. Finally, field trials showed that the addition of 1% activated carbon did not result in higher wheat yields compared to those in the non-amended plots in both the absence and presence of nitrogen. In conclusion, although the activated carbon chosen is a strong nitrate-retaining agent, it does not deliver the expected yield gains, probably due to excessive retention, which prevents increased plant growth. More research is needed to improve activated carbon as a fertilizer.
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Open AccessArticle
Data-Driven and Mechanistic Soil Modeling for Precision Fertilization Management in Cotton
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Miltiadis Iatrou, Panagiotis Tziachris, Fotis Bilias, Panagiotis Kekelis, Christos Pavlakis, Aphrodite Theofilidou, Ioannis Papadopoulos, Georgios Strouthopoulos, Georgios Giannopoulos, Dimitrios Arampatzis, Evangelos Vergos, Christos Karydas, Dimitris Beslemes and Vassilis Aschonitis
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020029 - 19 Apr 2025
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This study introduces a novel methodology for predicting cotton yield by integrating machine learning (ML) with mechanistic soil modeling. This hybrid approach enhances yield prediction by combining data-driven ML techniques with soil process modeling. Using the developed yield model, yield curves for various
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This study introduces a novel methodology for predicting cotton yield by integrating machine learning (ML) with mechanistic soil modeling. This hybrid approach enhances yield prediction by combining data-driven ML techniques with soil process modeling. Using the developed yield model, yield curves for various nitrogen (N) levels can be constructed to identify the optimal N dose that maximizes yield. Estimating cotton N requirements is crucial, as growers often apply excessive N, exceeding the amount needed for maximum yield. By comparing the Mean Absolute Error (MAE) between predicted and observed cotton yield values across three ML algorithms, i.e., Random Forest (RF), XGBoost, and LightGBM, the RF model achieved the lowest error (422.6 kg/ha), outperforming XGBoost (446 kg/ha) and LightGBM (449 kg/ha). Additionally, the RF model exhibited high sensitivity to N fertilization, ranking N as the most influential variable in feature importance analysis. Furthermore, phosphorus (P) availability in the soil model was found to be a significant factor influencing the RF yield model, highlighting P’s crucial role in cotton growth and productivity.
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Open AccessArticle
Recovery of Beef Cattle Manure Nitrogen in a Long-Term Winter Wheat Fertility Study
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Raedan Sharry, Daryl Brian Arnall, Steve Phillips and Joao Bigatao Souza
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020028 - 16 Apr 2025
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Beef-cattle manure (BCM) can be an effective source of nitrogen (N) for crop production. However, N availability from manure can be difficult to quantify across varying environments. The Magruder Plots are a continuous winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) fertility study established in 1892
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Beef-cattle manure (BCM) can be an effective source of nitrogen (N) for crop production. However, N availability from manure can be difficult to quantify across varying environments. The Magruder Plots are a continuous winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) fertility study established in 1892 in Stillwater, OK, USA. In the study, wheat grain yield responses to BCM that is applied every four years are compared to those following annual applications of inorganic nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) fertilizers. This long-term, comprehensive dataset facilitates the evaluation of manure N availability and uptake across a wide range of growing environments; thus, the objective of this paper was to use 56 years of data from the Magruder Plots to benchmark current N-based manure application guidelines for Oklahoma. The results from this analysis revealed some discrepancies compared to regionally accepted guidelines for manure N availability. Existing guidelines for Oklahoma suggest that 50 to 70% of total N in BCM will become plant-available in the first year after application; however, the Magruder Plots have only averaged 23% total N availability in year one. The three seasons after manure application averaged total N availability of 20, 16, and 14%, respectively, which much more closely align with the existing estimates for Oklahoma of 10 to 20% N availability after year one. This study suggests that N availability of BCM in the first year after application in Oklahoma has a more accurate estimate of 10 to 30% of total N.
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Open AccessArticle
Microbial Biotechnologies for Salt Tolerance in Alfalfa: Agro-Nutritional Comparison Between Local and Imported Varieties
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Raja Ben-Laouane, Mohamed Ait-El-Mokhtar, Mohamed Anli, Abderrahim Boutasknit, Khalid Oufdou, Said Wahbi and Abdelilah Meddich
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020027 - 12 Apr 2025
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Increasing soil salinity is threatening agricultural productivity which implies the development of new sustainable strategies to deal with this challenge. The main objective here is to assess the potential for improving the tolerance of alfalfa to salinity by combining inoculations with rhizobia and
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Increasing soil salinity is threatening agricultural productivity which implies the development of new sustainable strategies to deal with this challenge. The main objective here is to assess the potential for improving the tolerance of alfalfa to salinity by combining inoculations with rhizobia and AMF. However, the distinguishing feature of this study is the comparison of two alfalfa varieties’ microbial response to salinity. The greenhouse trial was conducted on an Australian variety Siriver and an indigenous Demnate population, which were inoculated with Rhizoglomus irregulare and/or native AMF, and/or a RhOL1 rhizobial strain. The RhOL1 strain was selected from nine rhizobia tested for their plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) activities. In addition to its ability to tolerate high salinity levels (769 mM) and solubilize insoluble phosphate as well as potassium, it can also synthesize auxins such as IAA. The application of these biofertilizers was carried out in the absence and the presence of the saline stress (0 and 120 mM NaCl). The double inoculations of native AMF and RhOL1 significantly improve the shoot and root dry biomass, plant elongation, number of formed leaves, and mineral nutrition, as well as the number of nodules and the rate of mycorrhizal root colonization. The synergistic effects between the native AMF and RhOL1 strain have been demonstrated in this study. However, the behavior of alfalfa genotypes towards microbial inoculation was significantly different. The ability to react to the double indigenous RhOL1 + AMF inoculation is more important in the Siriver than in the Demnate population. Thus, the possibility of formulating biofertilizers is based on the AMF–rhizobia–hote tripartite combination for alfalfa production in saline areas.
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Open AccessArticle
Inoculation with Bradyrhizobium elkanii Reduces Nitrogen Fertilization Requirements for Pseudalbizzia niopoides, a Multipurpose Neotropical Legume Tree
by
Rafael Barroca Silva, Cristiane de Pieri, Leonardo José Silva da Costa, Mellina Nicácio da Luz, Antonio Ganga, Gian Franco Capra, José Raimundo de Souza Passos, Magali Ribeiro da Silva and Iraê Amaral Guerrini
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020026 - 12 Apr 2025
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This study investigated the effects of Bradyrhizobium elkanii inoculation and nitrogen (N) fertilization on the growth of Pseudalbizzia niopoides seedlings in a nursery and their subsequent performance in soil. P. niopoides is a legume tree native to Latin American tropical forests, known to
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This study investigated the effects of Bradyrhizobium elkanii inoculation and nitrogen (N) fertilization on the growth of Pseudalbizzia niopoides seedlings in a nursery and their subsequent performance in soil. P. niopoides is a legume tree native to Latin American tropical forests, known to nodulate but with no previously identified rhizobial partner. Seedlings were grown in a nursery under varying N fertilization rates (0, 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg L−1) with and without B. elkanii inoculation. Morphological traits, nodulation, and post-planting growth were assessed. Both inoculation and N fertilization significantly enhanced seedling growth in the nursery. However, high N rates suppressed nodulation and caused root toxicity. Inoculated seedlings exhibited improved growth after planting, particularly at lower N rates. Notably, inoculated seedlings without added N demonstrated vigorous new root proliferation after three months, highlighting the beneficial effects of the symbiosis. In terms of nitrogen fertilization in nurseries, a N rate up to 500 mg L−1 produced satisfactory plant growth and no prejudicial effects on the symbiosis establishment. However, it is possible to raise seedlings even in the 0 mg L−1 N rate, with a vigorous root emission during the post-planting growth. This study provides valuable insights into the interaction between a specific rhizobia strain and P. niopoides, with implications for nursery practices and sustainable agroforestry systems.
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Open AccessArticle
Leucaena-Based Alley Cropping System: An Approach for Reclaiming Degraded Land, Reducing the Use of Inorganic Nitrogen Fertilizer, and Improving Crop Productivity
by
Md. Suhag, Tofayel Ahamed, Ashim Kumar Das, Md. Abiar Rahman, Md. Mizanur Rahman and Md. Giashuddin Miah
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020025 - 11 Apr 2025
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Alley cropping, an agroforestry system that integrates trees and arable crops, holds the potential to improve both crop yields and soil health. It has been found to be effective for upland crops in many countries of the world. However, the utilization of alley
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Alley cropping, an agroforestry system that integrates trees and arable crops, holds the potential to improve both crop yields and soil health. It has been found to be effective for upland crops in many countries of the world. However, the utilization of alley cropping to improve soil health in the terrace ecosystem of Bangladesh is poorly understood. Therefore, this study was undertaken to assess the changes in soil biochemical properties and quantify the cabbage yield under three alley widths of Leucaena leucocephala (3.0, 4.5, and 6.0 m size) and five nitrogen (N) levels [0, 40, 80, 120, and 160 kg N ha−1 (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% of recommended N rates, respectively) with the addition of pruned materials of L. leucocephala (Ipil-ipil)]. The field experiment was conducted following a split-plot design, where alley width was considered as the main-plot factor and N rate as the sub-plot factor. Within each main plot, the five N rates were replicated thrice. Control plots with similar N doses were applied accordingly without addition of pruned materials to compare the results with alley cropping. Data were collected on the biochemical properties of the soil [soil pH, organic carbon (C), total N, available phosphorus (P), exchangeable potassium (K), microbial biomass C, and biomass N] and the yield of cabbage quantified [edible head weight (kg plant−1) and head yield (t ha−1)] under different alley widths and control. Findings revealed that organic C, total N, available P, exchangeable K, microbial biomass C, and biomass N in the topsoil exhibited maximum values in the L. leucocephala-based alley plot, which is proved to be a possible solution of restoration of degradable land. Additionally, L. leucocephala-based alley cropping improved the soil pH, indicating a potential avenue for more-sustainable land management practices. Results also showed that alley widths and N rates have significant effects on cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata) yield. Alley width of 6.0 m along with 100% N provided the highest cabbage yield followed by 75% N in 6.0 m alley, and the control with 100%. The wider alley minimizes tree–crop competition, allowing for optimal cabbage production. These aforementioned results suggest that alley cropping with L. leucocephala is a promising approach to enhance soil fertility and crop productivity in the terrace ecosystem of Bangladesh.
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Open AccessReview
Biodegradable Waste in Compost Production: A Review of Its Economic Potential
by
Ayesha Ansar, Jianguo Du, Qaiser Javed, Muhammad Adnan and Iqra Javaid
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020024 - 5 Apr 2025
Cited by 2
Abstract
This study explores the economic benefits and challenges associated with biodegradable waste composting, highlighting its role in promoting sustainability through a circular economy framework. We reviewed the relevant literature and found 160 articles for this study, including the keywords “Biodegradable waste”, “Compost production”,
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This study explores the economic benefits and challenges associated with biodegradable waste composting, highlighting its role in promoting sustainability through a circular economy framework. We reviewed the relevant literature and found 160 articles for this study, including the keywords “Biodegradable waste”, “Compost production”, and “Economic Potential”. Considering quality studies, we employed the PRISMA technique to conduct a comprehensive data synthesis and evaluate 89 articles for the final review. Our findings highlight that composting offers significant advantages, including waste reduction, cost savings in waste management, carbon credit, a source of nitrogen, job creation, and reduced reliance on synthetic fertilizers. Further, it supports environmental sustainability by improving soil health, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, and reducing landfill use. However, challenges such as high upfront costs, quality control, and market competition with chemical fertilizers remain barriers to widespread adoption. The study extends the literature by emphasizing that the integration of composting into a circular economy can foster innovation, enhance local economies, and contribute to climate change mitigation. Furthermore, it offers a promising pathway for advancing sustainability. Future research should focus on improving composting technologies, optimizing their applications, and developing stronger policy frameworks to ensure the successful implementation of biodegradable waste composting practices.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternatives to Mineral Nitrogen Fertilizers in Agriculture: State of the Art, Challenges and Future Prospects, 2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Bootstrapping Enhanced Model for Improving Soil Nitrogen Prediction Accuracy in Arid Wheat Fields
by
Qassim A. Talib Al-Shujairy, Suhad M. Al-Hedny, Mohammed A. Naser, Sadeq Muneer Shawkat, Ahmed Hatem Ali and Dinesh Panday
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020023 - 1 Apr 2025
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Soil nitrogen (N) is a crucial nutrient for agricultural productivity and ecosystem health. The accurate and timely assessment of total soil N is essential for evaluating soil health. This study aimed to determine the impact of bootstrapping techniques on improving the predictive accuracy
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Soil nitrogen (N) is a crucial nutrient for agricultural productivity and ecosystem health. The accurate and timely assessment of total soil N is essential for evaluating soil health. This study aimed to determine the impact of bootstrapping techniques on improving the predictive accuracy of indirect total soil N in conventional wheat fields in Al-Muthanna, Iraq. We integrated a novel methodological framework that integrated bootstrapped and non-bootstrapped total soil N data from 110 soil samples along with Landsat 9 imagery on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform. The performance of the proposed bootstrapping-enhanced random forest (RF) model was compared to standard RF models for soil N prediction, and outlier samples were analyzed to assess the impact of soil conditions on model performance. Principal components analysis (PCA) identified the key spectral reflectance properties that contribute to the variation in soil N. The PCA results highlighted NIR (band 5) and SWIR2 (band 7) as the primary contributors, explaining over 91.3% of the variation in soil N within the study area. Among the developed models, the log (B5/B7) model performed best in capturing soil N (R2 = 0.773), followed by the ratio (B5/B7) model (R2 = 0.489), while the inverse log transformation (1/log (B5/B7), R2 = 0.191) exhibited the lowest performance. Bootstrapped RF models surpassed non-bootstrapped random forest models, demonstrating enhanced predictive capability for soil N. This study established an efficient framework for improving predictive capacity in areas characterized by limited, low-quality, and incomplete spatial data, offering valuable insights for sustainable nitrogen management in arid regions dominated by monoculture systems.
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Open AccessReview
Wastewater Denitrification with Solid-Phase Carbon: A Sustainable Alternative to Conventional Electron Donors
by
Dorsa Barkhordari, Jithin Mathew, Basem Haroun, Lars Rehmann, Sudhir Murthy and Domenico Santoro
Nitrogen 2025, 6(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6020022 - 1 Apr 2025
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Nitrate pollution in aquatic environments poses significant environmental and public health issues, mostly due to industrial activities and agricultural runoff. Biological denitrification, the favored method for removing nitrates, typically needs an external carbon source to support microbial processes. Traditional electron donors like methanol,
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Nitrate pollution in aquatic environments poses significant environmental and public health issues, mostly due to industrial activities and agricultural runoff. Biological denitrification, the favored method for removing nitrates, typically needs an external carbon source to support microbial processes. Traditional electron donors like methanol, ethanol, and acetate are effective but introduce economic, environmental, and operational challenges such as cost variability, flammability hazards, and excessive residual organic material. Recently, solid-phase carbon sources—like biodegradable polymers and organic agricultural waste—have shown promise as alternatives because they allow for controlled carbon release, improved safety, and enhanced long-term sustainability. This review systematically examines the performance of solid-phase carbon in wastewater denitrification by analyzing peer-reviewed studies and experimental data. The findings suggest that solid-phase carbon sources, including polycaprolactone (PCL) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), offer stable and extended carbon release, ensuring consistent denitrification effectiveness. Nonetheless, challenges remain, including optimizing biofilm development, balancing carbon availability, and reducing operational costs. Furthermore, the review emphasizes the potential for integrating machine learning in process optimization and highlights the need for more research to enhance the economic viability of these materials. The findings confirm the practicality of solid-phase carbon sources for extensive wastewater treatment and their capability to sustainably address nitrate contamination.
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