Encyclopedia

Functional analysis is a methodology used within the field of Behavioral Analysis to explain, predict, and influence behavior. This is achieved by identifying the functional relationships between behavior, the antecedent stimuli that elicit or evoke behavior, and the consequences of behavior that influence its future occurrence. Within this context, a functional relationship refers to a consistent and observable change in behavior (the “dependent variable”) that results from the systematic manipulation of environmental conditions (the “independent variables”). Functional analyses typically focus on the immediate environmental context, where stimuli functionally related to the behavior are observed. In applied and clinical settings, however, behavior analysts may consider additional variables (e.g., genetic predispositions, social context, learning history) to enhance the accuracy and relevance of their analyses. These variables are usually controlled for or excluded in experimental settings but can play a meaningful role in naturalistic behavior assessment. Full article

Phyllodes tumors are rare fibroepithelial neoplasms of the breast, and their malignant forms present significant diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. This review summarizes current knowledge across the benign-to-malignant spectrum, focusing on diagnostic approaches, histopathological classification, molecular alterations, and treatment strategies. While recent molecular studies have revealed recurrent genetic mutations, their clinical implications remain under investigation. Surgical excision remains the cornerstone of treatment, and systemic therapies are generally adapted from soft tissue sarcoma protocols. Future efforts should focus on improving diagnostic accuracy, identifying molecular targets for therapy, and fostering international collaboration to advance clinical research in this rare tumor type. Full article

This study is intended to conduct a comprehensive review of federalism. This study starts from the institutional aspect and analyzes how federalism, as a compound structure, divides power between the central and local governments. Then, this study mentions that federalism also has its normative connotations, which are traceable to the theological concept of a covenant. We also elaborate on how the success of the United States’ federalism strengthened its institutional aspect while overshadowing the older covenant tradition. Next, this study presents a typological framework of federalism, introducing concepts such as coming-together federalism and holding-together federalism; dual federalism and cooperative federalism; decentralization and non-centralization; and asymmetrical federalism, non-territorial autonomy, and consociationalism, presidential and parliamentary federalism, as well as democratic federalism and authoritarian federalism/facade federalism. Next, this study compares monist federalism with multinational federalism. Then, this study examines the specific applications of federalism in fiscal, environmental, health-care, and social-welfare policies. By reviewing the history, theoretical origins, institutional development, and contemporary manifestations of federalism, this study provides a roadmap for scholars in the field of federal studies. Finally, this study also puts forward several testable hypotheses, aiming to provide operational research agendas for future studies. Full article

Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a software-based technology that uses configurable algorithmic software agents (bots) to replicate manual user activities across digital systems. It represents an evolution from earlier workflow scripting tools, and is distinguished by its ability to be used without requiring substantial IT infrastructure modifications or extensive programming knowledge. In the banking and insurance sectors, organizations face increasing pressure to adopt modern technologies that streamline operations and reduce costs while complying with strict regulatory requirements. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) has emerged as a viable and cost-effective solution, enabling automation of repetitive and rule-based tasks without requiring major changes to legacy IT systems. This paper conducts a literature review to examine the current use cases of RPA technologies in banking and insurance, analyzing how these technologies are employed to enhance corporate efficiency and performance. The review draws from recent academic publications and case studies between 2017 and 2025, identifying core implementation areas such as customer onboarding, claims processing, compliance reporting, and underwriting automation. The results highlight substantial improvements in processing speed, error reduction, and resource optimization, along with evolving metrics for measuring effectiveness. The study concludes by identifying key success factors, performance measurement approaches, and challenges in RPA implementation, offering insights for both practitioners and researchers aiming to understand the role of automation in financial services transformation. Full article

Digital Entrepreneurial Capability (DEC) is the integrated and learnable capacity that equips individuals, or founding teams, to sense, evaluate, and exploit entrepreneurial opportunities within digitally intermediated, platform-centric markets. The construct synthesises four interlocking elements. First, it requires technical dexterity: mastery of data engineering, AI-driven analytics, low-code development, cloud orchestration, and cybersecurity safeguards. Second, it draws on accumulated human capital—formal education, sector experience, and tacit managerial know-how that ground vision in operational reality. Third, DEC hinges on an opportunity-seeking mindset characterised by cognitive alertness, creative problem framing, a high need for achievement, and autonomous motivation. Finally, it depends on calculated risk tolerance, encompassing the ability to price and mitigate economic, technical, algorithmic, and competitive uncertainties endemic to platform economies. When these pillars operate synergistically, entrepreneurs translate digital affordances into scalable, resilient business models; when one pillar is weak, capability bottlenecks arise and ventures falter. Because each pillar can be intentionally developed through education, deliberate practice, and ecosystem support, DEC serves as a practical roadmap for stakeholders. It now informs scholarship across entrepreneurship, information systems, innovation management, and public-policy disciplines, and guides interventions ranging from curriculum design and accelerator programming to due-diligence heuristics and national digital literacy initiatives. Full article

Organic acidurias, a subgroup of inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs), are characterized by the accumulation of non-amine-containing, low-molecular-weight organic acids (OAs) in urine and/or plasma due to defects in specific metabolic pathways. Early diagnosis can be critical to enable timely intervention to prevent irreversible neurological injury or death. Therefore, urine organic acid (UOA) testing plays an indispensable role in the differential diagnosis of symptomatic individuals and the follow-up of abnormal newborn screen results. Historically, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has been the gold standard method, with well-established protocols for sample preparation and result interpretation. Recent advances in liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), including both triple quadrupole and high-resolution Quadrupole Time-of-Flight (QTOF) platforms, have enabled UOA analysis with simplified workflows and improved coverage to diagnose a broader array of IEMs. This review summarizes the evolution of UOA testing from manual colorimetric assays to mass spectrometry-based platforms, highlights the analytical and interpretative considerations of GC-MS, and explores emerging LC-MS technologies and bioinformatics tools that offer enhanced diagnostic capabilities and efficiency for the future of IEM testing. Full article

Orbital Angular Momentum (OAM) of light is generating growing interest within the scientific community. This entry reviews the origins and applications of OAM. It is the counterpart of linear momentum for systems in rotation. The general expression of OAM is discussed, followed by its implications in terms of phase distribution and donut-shaped intensity profiles. Applications described include the generation of optical torque, telecommunications enhancement, and the rotational Doppler effect, emphasizing the role and consequences of angular momentum. In particular, its use to manipulate systems or to detect rotations is described. Finally, further developments and technological barriers are considered. Full article

The geophysical techniques ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) are commonly used data collection methodologies in numerous disciplines, including archaeology. Many researchers are now, or will be in the future, associated with projects that use these geophysical techniques, but who are not well versed in the instrumentation, its function, related terminology, data interpretation, and outcomes. This entry outlines the general approach and background for completing this type of research, dissects the methodology from a completed geoarchaeological project that uses both GPR and ERT, and provides concise definitions and explanations for all facets of the methodology. Based on this methodology, 21 terms or concepts related to GPR are explained in detail, as are 26 terms or concepts related to ERT, and visual representations of some of the terms and concepts are further illuminated via 11 figures. There are also 133 references linked to the various concepts and terms presented in this entry. Full article

Prematurity, defined as a birth before 37 weeks of gestation, affects approximately 15 million infants worldwide yearly. Beyond the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit and the possibility of long-term developmental challenges affecting children’s quality of life, prematurity influences family dynamics, including parental mental health, financial stability, employment, and daily life. On a broader scale, research highlights the significant socioeconomic consequences of preterm birth that influence public healthcare policies, healthcare systems, and long-term costs. Addressing these challenges requires a multidisciplinary approach, beginning in the NICUs, with parental inclusion as a key component. The shift toward parental inclusion in the NICU may represent a fundamental transition from a medical to a social model of prematurity. The concept of a social model of prematurity parallels the social model of disability, from disability studies, focusing on premature babies, strengthening their abilities and nurturing early caregiver—infant relationships. It highlights how societal structures, such as accessibility and support systems, shape developmental outcomes and inclusion of premature infants, rather than framing prematurity solely in terms of survival and treatment. Full article

Translational criminology is the process of using scientific findings to inform criminal justice policy and practice. While seemingly straightforward, the translational process can encounter barriers, including politics, ideology, resource constraints, and causal uncertainty. Despite these challenges, promising practices, including mutually beneficial partnerships and the use of champions, have allowed translational criminology to advance. Full article

Teachers’ professional digital competence (PDC) refers to digital competence specific to the teaching profession. PDC serves a dual purpose: it encompasses a range of instrumental, professional, ethical, critical, and epistemic dimensions related to, on the one hand, teaching with digital tools and resources and, on the other hand, teaching pupils about digital technologies, digital skills, digital cultural expression, and broader digital and critical competences relevant to study, work, and everyday life. Teachers’ PDC is a dynamic concept that evolves in step with societal development and technological advancement. Full article

A common misconception is that behavioral economics rejects microeconomics. This entry explains how behavioral economics, despite challenging core assumptions of rationality, remains fundamentally aligned with the structure of microeconomics. Anchored in the insight that rational market outcomes can emerge even when individual behavior is non-rational, it revisits the explanatory role of constraints in economic theory. Rather than displacing microeconomics, behavioral economics extends it by incorporating bounded rationality while preserving key structural principles. Central to this integration is Say’s law, the macro-level notion that production generates income and thus the capacity for demand. This connection makes microeconomic constraints reflect deeper macroeconomic principles. Even when market behavior is distorted by correlated cognitive biases and their associated positive feedback dynamics—such as herding or bubbles—the fundamental identity that supply generates the income necessary for demand remains intact, provided that adjustments occur over the long run. The analysis also considers how behavioral deviations affect aggregate outcomes. Ultimately, this entry shows that behavioral economics is not a departure from microeconomics but its natural extension: by embedding bounded rationality within the framework of economic constraints, it preserves the structural coherence of microeconomics while adding psychological depth. Full article

Cuteness is commonly associated with visual features such as large eyes, a disproportionately large head, round body shapes, and small size. While these traits are most often observed in infants and young animals, they also appear in inanimate objects and digital representations intentionally designed to evoke emotional appeal. Drawing on developmental psychology, behavioral science, neuroscience, and cultural studies, this paper examines five core emotional responses to cute stimuli: caretaking, socializing, whimsical, cute aggression, and kama muta (the feeling of being emotionally moved). These responses emerge from an interplay between evolutionary mechanisms, such as caregiving instincts, and cultural frameworks that shape how cuteness is perceived, expressed, and valued. The analysis highlights not only biological foundations but also cultural moderators, with particular attention to gender differences and the pervasive role of kawaii aesthetics in Japan’s popular culture, communication, and everyday life. This paper provides an overview of these emotional responses, situates them within their theoretical foundations and broader psychological and social implications, and proposes a framework for future research. Full article

Over the past decade, educators have utilized flipped learning to augment students’ learning outside of the classroom. The COVID-19 pandemic disruptions in regular classroom teaching and learning activities intensified the use of the approach. This entry examines teacher educators’ and pre-service teachers’ perspectives of flipped learning, highlighting the opportunities and challenges during and after the pandemic. This entry also examines how flipped learning impacted educators’ work and pre-service teachers’ learning, which necessitated its continuous development and use in teacher education. A critical analysis of the literature and illustrations from other perspectives highlights the implication of adopting flipped learning and how educators, pre-service teachers, and universities can support the integration of the approach in the curriculum. While the approach provides substantial benefits to both educators and pre-service teachers, integrating digital technologies to adopt the approach presents challenges to practitioners, which need to be addressed with more support for professional development training. This entry contributes to the existing valuable information for policymaking for technological integration in the transformation of teacher education. Full article

Introduction: Research on aggressive behaviors (ABs) in adolescent mental healthcare settings remains limited and underexplored. Such behaviors significantly affect staff, patients, and the therapeutic environment, necessitating nursing interventions for effective risk management to reduce their adverse impact on safety and quality of care. Objective: This review aimed to map the existing evidence on nursing interventions for the risk management of AB in adolescent mental health units. Methods: A search strategy was used to identify relevant studies in databases, respecting the Participant/Concept/Context (PCC) question formulation structure. This review covers studies describing nursing risk management strategies for adolescents (10 to 19 years old) with aggression problems and admitted to mental healthcare units. Results: From the 499 records initially identified, 9 articles met the inclusion criteria and were selected for review, in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) and its associated flow diagram. The nursing interventions identified for managing AB in adolescent healthcare settings included risk assessment tools, targeted risk management strategies, evidence-based interventions but also various forms of coercive measures. Conclusions: This review integrates current knowledge on nursing interventions for the risk management of AB in adolescent mental health units. The focus of these interventions is prevention, by early intervention strategies but also intervention programs with improved outcomes for the patient, staff and therapeutic milieu, promoting less coercive interventions and increased care quality and safety. Full article

Listeria monocytogenes is a major public health concern in milk and ready-to-eat dairy products. To meet consumer demand for fresher, minimally processed foods with high nutritional and sensory quality, several non-thermal technologies are being explored as alternatives to conventional heat treatments. This systematic review (2020–2025), following PRISMA guidelines, examines recent applications of selected non-thermal technologies to control Listeria in milk and dairy matrices. Peer-reviewed studies available in full-text, in English or Spanish, focusing on applications at laboratory or pilot plant scales, with milk or dairy produced onsite or purchased, containing Listeria sp., were included. Studies with applications to plant-based or non-dairy products or those not inoculated with Listeria, were excluded. Conference abstracts, corrections, editorials, letters, news, and scientific opinions were excluded as well. The databases searched were Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest, which were last consulted in April 2025. Given the naturality of the review, the risk of bias was assessed through independent screening by two of the researchers, focusing on clear objectives, analytical validity, statistical analysis, and methodology. The results are presented in tabulated format. Of the 157 records identified, 22 were included in this review. Seven of the records reported hurdle technologies, while fifteen reported single technology applications, with high-pressure processing being the most frequent. Limitations observed are primarily the use of unreported strains, a lack of information regarding the initial load of inoculum, and expected log reductions. The equipment used is mostly at the laboratory scale, except for HPP. Non-thermal technologies present a promising option for the control of Listeria in dairy products. The basic principles of GMP, HACCP, and cold-chain control in dairy processing are of special importance in safety assurance. This research was funded by Vicerrectoría de Investigación, Universidad de Costa Rica, grant number 735-C3-460. Full article

Digital transformation is the process by which businesses adopt use of digital technologies to fundamentally change operations and customer interactions in order to optimize delivery and service. The UK refers to the United Kingdom which is shorthand for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland which is a European country that primarily includes England, Wales and Scotland together with the northern part of Ireland. The retail sector includes businesses that sell goods or services directly to consumers for their personal use, opposed to selling to other organizations for business applications. Generation refers to a series of broad age groups that are considered to demonstrate different generalized characteristics. Full article

The basic structural concepts in the study of monatomic fluids at equilibrium are presented in this entry. The scope encompasses both the classical and the quantum domains, the latter concentrating on the diffraction and the zero-spin boson regimes. The main mathematical objects for describing the fluid structures are the following n-body functions: the correlation functions in real space and their associated structure factors in Fourier space. In these studies, the theory of linear response to external weak fields, involving functional calculus, and Feynman’s path integral formalism are the key conceptual ingredients. Emphasis is placed on the physical implications when going from the classical domain (limit of high temperatures) to the abovementioned quantum regimes (low temperatures). In the classical domain, there is only one class of n-body structures, which at every n level consists of one correlation function plus one structure factor. However, the quantum effects bring about the splitting of the foregoing class into three path integral classes, namely instantaneous, total thermalized-continuous linear response, and centroids; each of them is associated with the action of a distinct external weak field and keeps the above n-level structures. Special attention is given to the structural pair level $n=2$, and future directions towards the complete study of the quantum triplet level $n=3$ are suggested. Full article

The intensified exposure to high temperature in urban areas, resulting from the combination of heat waves and the urban heat island (UHI) effect, necessitates a deeper understanding of the climate–health relationship. This knowledge directly influences the strategies employed by policy makers and urban planners in their efforts to regenerate cities and protect their population. Nature-based solutions and the widely accepted 15 min city model, characterized by a polycentric structure, should drive the implementation of effective adaptation policies, especially given the persistent delay in mitigation efforts. However, it is less clear whether current or future policies are adequately structured to broadly address the complex forms of social vulnerability. A prime example of this complexity is the demographic shift observed since the mid-20th century, characterized by a relative increase in the elderly population, and a shrinking youth demographic. While extensive literature addresses the physiological impacts of heat wave on human health, evidence regarding the neuro-psychological and cognitive implications for elderly individuals, who frequently suffer from chronic diseases, remains less comprehensive and more fragmented. The purpose of this concise review is to emphasize that crucial findings on the climate–health relationship, particularly concerning the elderly, have often been developed within disciplinary silos. The lack of comprehensive interdisciplinary integration coupled with an incomplete understanding of the full spectrum of vulnerabilities (encompassing both physiological and cognitive) may lead to urban policies that are egalitarian in principle but fail to achieve true equity in practice. This review aims to bridge this gap by highlighting the need for a more integrated approach to urban policy and regeneration. Full article