The Psychology of Ocean Literacy

Definition

Ocean Literacy (OL) can be broadly defined as a framework for understanding the complex and evolving relationships between people and the ocean. It is increasingly recognized as a vital component of marine conservation and sustainability efforts. OL is inherently interdisciplinary, and psychology, while being a particularly relevant field, remains an underutilized field in this space. This paper demonstrates how psychological theories, frameworks, and validated measures can meaningfully inform OL strategies across its ten proposed dimensions: knowledge, awareness, attitudes, behavior, activism, communication, emotional connections, access and experience, adaptive capacity, and trust and transparency.

1. Introduction to Ocean Literacy

Ocean Literacy (OL) was first defined in the early 2000s to address the lack of ocean-related content in formal education. Since then, it has evolved into a broader, multidisciplinary framework for understanding the complex relationships between people and the ocean. This evolution is reflected in global initiatives such as the United Nations Ocean Decade Vision 2030, which identifies “restoring society’s relationship with the ocean” as one of its ten key challenges. Around the world, OL is increasingly recognized as a mechanism for engaging the public, informing policy, and supporting sustainable ocean futures [1,2].

OL is inherently interdisciplinary, and psychology is a particularly relevant, yet often underutilized, field. Environmental and conservation psychology explores reciprocal relationships between humans and nature [3]. While there are slight nuances between these two fields, including that conservation psychology emphasizes the promotion of conservation behaviors [4], the two terms are often interchanged and collectively offer valuable insights for building an ocean-literate society.

There are ten proposed dimensions of OL: knowledge, awareness, attitudes, behavior, activism, communication, emotional connections, access and experience, adaptive capacity, and trust and transparency [5]. This entry explores how psychological theories, frameworks, and measures can contribute to each of these dimensions. The aim is not to provide an exhaustive list or to suggest that all theories must be applied simultaneously. Also, given the inherent overlap between psychology and other disciplines, including, but not limited to, behavioral science, business, and education, some of the theories discussed in this entry, while relevant to psychology, are also used in these adjacent fields. The intention of this paper is not to claim that these theories are unique to psychology; rather, the goal of this paper is to demonstrate how psychology can meaningfully inform OL strategies and to offer a starting point for researchers, educators, and practitioners to draw from psychological science in ways that resonate with their OL work.

2. Applying Psychology to the 10 Dimensions of Ocean Literacy

2.1. Knowledge

Knowledge is a foundational dimension of OL, which was traditionally defined as understanding the ocean’s influence on people and people’s influence on the ocean [6]. McKinley [5] more specifically describes knowledge in OL as what people know about oceans and ocean decision-making. Psychology offers valuable insights into how individuals acquire, process, and apply knowledge, particularly through cognitive theories.

In the OL context, it is important to distinguish between objective knowledge (factual understanding) and subjective knowledge (perceived understanding), as both can influence attitudes and behaviors. For example, Fauville et al. [7] explored objective knowledge through items such as “how deep is the deepest part of the ocean”, while Steele et al. [8] explored subjective knowledge by asking participants “in general, how well informed would you consider yourself to be concerning ocean and coastal policy issues—such as fisheries, beach erosion, pollution, etc.—in the United States?”. It is also useful to differentiate knowledge from intelligence. While knowledge refers to accumulated information, intelligence involves the capacity to learn, reason, and solve problems. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences [9] challenges the idea of a single general intelligence, proposing diverse cognitive strengths including visual–spatial, verbal–linguistic, and naturalistic intelligences, all of which shape how individuals engage with OL content. Although empirical support for Gardner’s theory is mixed, it has influenced educational practice by promoting inclusive and varied teaching approaches, including in environmental and ocean education [10]. Importantly, it opens space for recognizing emotional, experiential, and embodied forms of learning as legitimate contributions to OL. Broadening the concept of knowledge is also vital to expand beyond Western scientific paradigms, which have been dominant in OL [11,12].

A relevant psychology theory is schema, which can explain how new information about the ocean and ocean conservation is interpreted through existing mental models [13]. Essentially, people use prior experiences and assumptions to make sense of new information, which means even accurate and novel ocean-related content is filtered through schemas, which may include previously held misconceptions, incomplete understanding, or certain experiences. This theory proposed that when provided with new information, people may mold the new information to fit into their existing schemas (assimilation), or modify schemas to fit the new information (accommodation) [13]. Both of which can be achieved through scaffolding, which is a term used in a variety of contexts. In cognitive psychology, the term originated from Vygotsky’s work and specifically referred to the support that adults provide children for them to learn complex abilities [14]. Since then, the term scaffolding in the context of psychology has broadened and can refer to how educators help learners connect new information to already existing structures [15], which is most relevant to the OL context.

The Elaboration Likelihood Model [16,17] explains how knowledge becomes enduring through routes of persuasion. This model posits two routes to persuasion: the central route, involving deep, effortful processing of information, and the peripheral route, relying on superficial cues. The central route leads to more stable knowledge acquisition, attitude change, and is more predictive of future behavior. For example, zoo staff trained to use peripheral cues, such as second-person pronouns, interactive activities, and metaphors, saw increased visitor engagement and provoked deeper thinking [18]. Recent research also shows that the central route is particularly effective for environmental content on social media, where source credibility plays a key role [19]. Therefore, both pathways have a role to play in OL. Both routes have relevance for OL, depending on context and audience, and each is further discussed in the Section 2.6 below.

Knowledge is often measured by composing test items that represent the target topic and are fair and unbiased [20], similar to how writing exams are approached. These items can be binary, such as Wootton et al. [21] using yes/no questions to assess whether participants knew what a marine protected area is, or open-ended, like Taylor et al. [22] employed to explore species knowledge on the Great Barrier Reef. Multiple choice items are also a common option, such as McCrossan and Molloy [23] asking “Please choose the main effects of coastal development from the list below”.

While knowledge is often assumed to lead to pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors, the knowledge–attitude–behavior model has been criticized for oversimplifying these relationships [24]. While there is evidence that there are relationships between knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors, there are also a number of other influential factors [25]. These factors include emotions, values, social norms, and perceived behavioral control, which can each play a more significant role [26]. As such, contemporary OL models are shifting away from a knowledge-deficit approach toward multidimensional frameworks that incorporate motivation, identity, and lived experience, which can be enriched with psychological underpinnings.

2.2. Awareness

Awareness, within the context of OL, refers to the basic understanding that ocean-related issues, threats, and opportunities exist, as well as recognition of the behaviors, policies, and systems that may address them [5]. This dimension goes beyond simply identifying problems and encompasses the ability to discern potential solutions to understand available actions at both individual and societal levels and to foster a sense of ownership and empowerment. Psychological theories offer critical insights into how awareness is formed, shaped, and can be distorted. Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance [27] suggests that people can think about distant events (e.g., future scenarios, remote locations), but a more psychologically distant issue, such as sea-level rise or ocean acidification, feels more abstract and less urgent. This is particularly relevant in Western contexts where climate-related ocean issues may seem temporally, spatially, or socially distant [28], reducing motivation to act. Anchoring techniques [29] can help reduce this psychological distance. For example, instead of stating that “the ocean is warming”, framing it as “the ocean at your local beach has warmed by X degrees, which is equivalent to XXX” provides a concrete reference point that enhances salience and emotional impact.

People also rely on heuristics, or mental shortcuts, to navigate the overwhelming amount of information encountered daily. These shortcuts can lead to cognitive biases that shape how ocean-related information is interpreted. For instance, confirmation bias leads individuals to favor information that aligns with their existing beliefs while disregarding contradictory evidence [30]. This can hinder the uptake of new or corrective messages about ocean threats. Loss aversion suggests that people are more motivated to avoid losses than to pursue gains, making it more effective to frame ocean protection in terms of what we stand to lose, such as beach access during algal blooms, rather than potential benefits [29]. The availability heuristic causes people to judge the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind [31]; thus, media-saturated events like shark attacks [32] or oil spills [33] are more cognitively accessible than less visible issues like ocean acidification. Additionally, primacy and recency effects suggest that information presented first or last is more influential than information in the middle [34,35], which has implications for how ocean messages are structured in educational and media contexts. Together, these biases underscore the importance of strategically designing communication to foster more accurate and impactful awareness of ocean issues. Also, the Social Amplification of Risk Framework [36] provides a compelling model for understanding how public awareness of ocean threats is shaped by social and media dynamics. According to SARF, risk perceptions can be amplified or attenuated through news coverage, social narratives, and emotional storytelling. This helps explain why public concern is often disproportionately high for dramatic, visible threats and low for systemic or long-term issues.

One way that awareness can be measured is by assessing participants’ level of agreement on different factors. For example O’Halloran [37] used a scale to measure the level of agreement on items such as “the ocean supports a great diversity of life and ecosystem”, while another study used a dichotomous yes/no item to measure levels of agreement on different ocean topics [38]. Also, while awareness of marine issues is commonly measured in ocean literacy research, such as through the Canadian Ocean Literacy Coalition’s national study [11], it often focuses on threats rather than solution-oriented thinking [39]. There is a growing need to also assess awareness of tangible actions that can be taken to protect marine ecosystems at local, regional, and global scales. By integrating psychological insights, OL research can move beyond surface-level assessments of awareness and foster deeper, more solution-focused engagement.

2.3. Attitudes

Attitudes can broadly be defined as evaluative reactions based on beliefs [40]; however, attitudes in OL go beyond simple evaluation and encompass perceptions, values, emotional reactions, and identity-based views toward marine topics, which can shape both personal behavior and broader societal outcomes [5]. Attitudes play a vital role in ocean governance and policy support, including how gauging stakeholder sentiment toward marine protected areas [41] and offshore renewable energy [42] provides valuable insight into the social acceptability of management interventions.

From a psychological perspective, attitude formation and influence are well explained through theories such as the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) [43] and the value–belief–norm (VBN) model [44]. These frameworks link individual attitudes to behavioral intentions, highlighting how beliefs, perceived norms, and values can predict support for conservation behaviors. Importantly, they also emphasize the role of social context, where attitudes are more likely to translate into action when they are perceived to be socially accepted. Other psychological work, such as Attitude Strength and Ambivalence Theory, demonstrates that strong, well-formed attitudes are more stable and predictive of behavior, while ambivalent or weak attitudes may result in indecision or inaction [45].

Psychology research also explores positive environmental attitudes such as biophilia, or connectedness to nature, which reflects an innate affiliation with nature [46]. These concepts relate to the natural world and are positively associated with pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors. Tools such as the Nature Relatedness Scale [47] and the Inclusion of Nature in Self scale [48] provide valuable insight into how affective and identity-based dimensions of attitude might influence ocean stewardship. The New Ecological Paradigm [49] is also a relevant validated scale that measures environmental concerns and values, which, given that values are not identified as a specific dimension of OL, is most relevant here. Another particularly influential attitude researcher is Kellert, who has researched general attitudes toward animals and developed a scale that includes nine different typologies [50], meaning that it is a comprehensive overview of different attitudes. Research has used Kellert’s typologies to explore attitudes toward marine animals, specifically sharks [51] and cetaceans [52]. Other measures can be used to measure attitudes, such as Likert scales can be created and adapted to measure attitudes to specific OL topics, and examples of this include a look at plastic pollution [53] or broader attitudes about ocean health [54].

While attitudes are often assumed to be shaped by knowledge, the relationship between the two is reciprocal and complex. Research in conservation psychology (e.g., TPB and VBN models) suggests that strong environmental attitudes can also drive knowledge-seeking behavior, reinforcing engagement and learning. Therefore, beyond simply measuring attitudes as an outcome, future ocean literacy initiatives should focus on leveraging attitudinal insights to design more responsive educational strategies, foster community support and identify potential pathways for policy and behavioral change.

2.4. Behavior

Behavior, in the context of OL, encompasses the decisions, actions, and habits of individuals, communities, sectors, and institutions in response to ocean-related issues [5]. Increasingly, behavior change across all sectors is being positioned as a key outcome of OL initiatives [55]. Psychological models offer valuable insights into how these behavioral shifts can be understood and supported. One of the most widely used frameworks is the TPB [43], which, as discussed above, links behavior to attitudes and perceived social norms and behavioral control. TPB has been applied across a range of environmental contexts, including food waste [56] and biodiversity conservation [57], and it is useful for predicting intentions around ocean-related actions like reducing marine debris [58] or choosing sustainable seafood [59]. However, TPB has its limitations as the intention–behavior gap shows that even when people intend to act, real-world barriers like lack of infrastructure or resources can get in the way [60].

Other perspectives, like habit theory and behavioral economics, highlight that many everyday behaviors are automatic and shaped by environmental cues. These insights support the use of nudges [61] and behavioral design to promote ocean-friendly actions such as reusable defaults, visual prompts, or socially visible commitments that make sustainable choices easier and more appealing. A practical and widely used behavior change framework is community-based social marketing (CBSM) [62]. CBSM involves four key steps: identifying barriers and benefits to the target behavior, developing a strategy, piloting it, and evaluating its effectiveness. Strategies often include prompts, commitment techniques, and social norms. In the marine space, CBSM has been applied to reduce wildlife net entanglement, among other emerging case studies [63]. Another useful model is the stages of change model [64], which recognizes that people are often at different points in their readiness to change. The six stages—pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, and relapse—help tailor interventions to where people are at. For example, if the goal is to encourage beach clean-ups and someone is in the pre-contemplation stage, messaging might focus on why it matters and how it affects them personally. If they are in the maintenance stage, strategies might focus on reinforcing the behavior and celebrating progress. While many of these theories focus on individual behavior, there are also frameworks designed to support broader, systemic change. The behavior change wheel [65] is one such tool that helps characterize and design interventions by mapping out sources of behavior, intervention functions, and policy categories. This is particularly useful when thinking about institutional or policy-level behavior change, like integrating ocean literacy into government planning or corporate sustainability strategies.

Measuring behavior change can be challenging, and often self-reporting items are used. For example, O’Halloran used a checklist of ocean conservation behaviors [37], while another study asked participants to report the frequency of how often they engage in different pro-environmental behaviors [66]. Hofman et al. utilized a Delphi technique to ascertain appropriate items for measuring conservation behaviors related to protecting marine environments [67]. A commonly used pro-environmental scale is the Pro-Environmental Behavior Scale [68], which measures behavioral intentions. While this scale is not ocean-specific, it highlights how both behavioral intentions and behaviors can be measured. Self-reports, while easy to use, can be biased, and actual behavior may differ from stated intentions. Observations may be more objectively accurate but are labor-intensive and pose ethical challenges [69]. This makes it more important to use mixed methods and triangulate data when evaluating the impact of OL initiatives and to invest in creating validated ocean behavior scales.

2.5. Activism

Within the dimensions of OL, activism is defined as the degree to which a person engages in activities that constitute activism, including campaigning or advocacy [5]. From a psychological perspective, activism is essentially a specific type of behavior, so many of the theories discussed in the Behavior section above still apply. However, there are additional psychological frameworks that can help us understand the more nuanced elements of activism.

From a social psychology lens, activism is closely tied to in-group/out-group dynamics. This is the idea that people behave differently depending on whether they feel they belong or do not belong to a group [70]. This can help explain participation in activism within identity-based movements, such as LGBTQI individuals participating in queer rights protests [71]. But it does not fully explain why people outside those identity groups also participate. That is where opinion-based group theory comes in [72]. This theory suggests that people can form activist groups based on shared beliefs or values, rather than shared identities. This framework is especially relevant to ocean conservation. Activism is also influenced by social norms, a concept shared across psychology and economics. Social norms refer to dominant behavioral patterns within a group. Essentially, people tend to do what others are doing [73]. This is why, when choosing a restaurant in a new city, you are more likely to pick the busy one over the empty one. In the same way, people are more likely to engage in activism if they see others doing it, especially when it is visible on social media or in their communities [74]. However, just seeing others act is not always influential. The bystander effect, identified through a foundation of social psychology experiments, shows that people often fail to intervene when others are present as they assume someone else will help [75]. Mills [76] extends this idea to the global ecological crisis, arguing that we may be experiencing a kind of global bystander effect, where people witness environmental degradation but do not act because they assume others will.

The collective interest model [77] offers another useful framework. It suggests that people will engage in activism when the expected value of participating is positive. Specifically, this framework proposes five factors: (1) the perceived value of the collective good, (2) the increased chance of success if they participate, (3) the likelihood of group success overall, (4) the personal costs of participating, and (5) the personal benefits. These factors align with other psychological models like TPB [43] and CBSM [62], reinforcing the importance of perceived efficacy and weighing benefits and barriers. A related concept is empowerment, which is about individuals or groups gaining mastery and control over their lives [78]. In the context of activism, this means that even if a campaign does not achieve its intended outcome, participants may still feel empowered by the process of the activism [79]. Empowerment can be both a strategy and an outcome, and given that there are many facets to it (for example, Zimmerman identified 11 indices [79]), it is important to consider how it is measured and supported in OL initiatives. Empowerment is increasingly recognized as essential in ocean literacy, especially when it comes to engaging young people. For example, Kelly et al. [39] outline five strategies for empowering youth in climate and ocean science, with the final strategy being to co-create visions of a sustainable future. To strengthen this approach, co-design should also emphasize the mastery and control individuals and communities have within the OL space, both at personal and collective levels.

2.6. Communication

In the OL context, communication functions both as a behavior, as individuals can share ocean-related information, and as a process through which ocean knowledge is conveyed to the public [5]. The way ocean discourse is framed plays a key role in how it is received and understood, again making psychological theories and frameworks highly relevant.

Dryzek [80] identifies a range of environmental discourses that shape public perception and emotional response. For example, the survivalist discourse emphasizes scarcity and ecological limits, while the promethean discourse highlights technological and economic progress as solutions to environmental challenges. These frames do not just shape what people think; they influence how people feel and what they are motivated to do. Metaphors, as a framing device, help audiences relate unfamiliar ocean concepts to familiar ideas, enhancing both comprehension and emotional engagement [81]. Repetition is another powerful communication strategy. According to Petty et al. [82], repeated exposure to a message can increase its perceived truthfulness, which is particularly relevant for OL campaigns, which often rely on consistent messaging to build public understanding and support.

The elaboration likelihood model [16,17], discussed earlier, is also highly relevant here. It explains how people process persuasive messages through two routes: the central route, which involves deep, effortful thinking, and the peripheral route, which relies on surface-level cues. Source credibility is a key factor in both routes. For example, the 2025 documentary ‘Oceans’, narrated by Sir David Attenborough, likely succeeded because it engaged both routes through presenting credible, fact-based content from a trusted source while also using vivid imagery and emotional storytelling to appeal to peripheral processing [83]. Another example is children’s storybooks written by scientists/experts which use both routes of messaging [84]. Effective communication is especially critical in OL because the movement is largely driven by scientists and educators [85], who are tasked with translating complex, often uncertain information into accessible and actionable messages. One of the biggest challenges here is the communication of uncertainty, particularly around climate change and oceanic shifts. While scientists are trained to navigate uncertainty, the general public tends to prefer predictability as it helps people feel safe and in control [86]. As Shome and Marx [87] point out, jargon-heavy explanations of uncertain concepts can undermine clarity and trust. Their resource on the psychology of climate change communication offers practical strategies, like simplifying language, using analogies, and transparently acknowledging uncertainty, that are directly applicable to OL efforts.

Another similar theory is narrative persuasion. According to the transportation imagery model [88,89], stories are more persuasive when they evoke a state of psychological transportation, which is a kind of mental immersion where the audience becomes absorbed in the narrative world, momentarily leaving the real world behind [90]. This immersive state blends attention, imagery, and emotion, and has been shown to increase belief and attitude change. Unlike rhetorical persuasion, which relies on arguments, evidence, and logic, narrative persuasion works by emotionally engaging the audience through story. This model has been applied in conservation communication. For example, a study on the documentary ‘Hidden Rivers’, which focused on freshwater biodiversity in the U.S., found that narrative elements and rich imagery increased pro-conservation beliefs and behavioral intentions, especially among viewers with low to moderate pre-existing conservation support [91]. Importantly, transportation was positively correlated with both belief alignment and behavioral interest, and emotional engagement was also linked to behavioral intent [92]. These findings reinforce the idea that emotionally resonant, imagery-rich storytelling can be a powerful way to communicate ocean issues.

2.7. Access and Experience

Access and experience within the OL framework refer to both real and artificial (e.g., virtual reality) engagements with the ocean, and the various ways individuals can access these experiences [5]. Whether physical, sensory, or mediated, these encounters play a crucial role in shaping emotional connections, learning outcomes, and environmental attitudes.

A key psychological concept here is place attachment, which describes the emotional bond individuals form with specific locations. This attachment can stem from dependence [93], social connections [94], or identity [95]. Stronger place attachment has been linked to increased pro-environmental behaviors, but also to eco-anxiety, particularly when cherished environments are threatened or degraded [96], as this can lead to experiences of solastalgia [97]. Certain ocean user groups, like surfers, show particularly high levels of place attachment [98], which is important to consider in OL research and outreach. However, given the vastness of the ocean, and that many people have less direct experience with oceans compared to terrestrial environments, oceans can often be “out of sight, out of mind” [99].

Experiential Learning Theory [100] emphasizes the importance of learning through hands-on, task-oriented activities. OL education is often most effective when people can directly access and experience the ocean. Research supports the benefits of immersive education, such as field-based learning and marine excursions [101]. However, not everyone lives near the coast or has physical access to marine environments, which raises the importance of bridging this access gap. Tools like virtual reality and interactive simulations offer promising alternatives for immersive learning [102]. Newly published research showcases how an augmented reality game-based education tool is being used to promote ocean literacy [103]. This also connects to embodied cognition theories, which suggest that cognitive processes are influenced by bodily interactions with the environment [104]. Being physically present in or near the ocean can enhance understanding and emotional resonance. When direct access is not possible, alternative strategies—like touchscreen data visualizations [105] or immersive storytelling methods [106]—can simulate embodied experiences and foster meaningful engagement. Another relevant concept is psychological flow, described as a state of deep immersion and enjoyment where individuals lose track of time and self-consciousness [107]. Activities like diving, sailing, or even virtual ocean exploration can induce flow, making the experience more memorable and impactful. Flow states are associated with positive affect [108] and enhanced learning outcomes [109]. Tourism and sports have also been shown to elicit flow [110], suggesting that ocean-related recreational and educational activities may be powerful tools for improving OL.

Metrics for assessing access and experience include proximity to blue spaces, including asking people how many times they have visited the ocean in the past year [11], the types of activities people engage in while in the ocean [111], and latent measures regarding ocean engagement, like in the Ocean & Society Survey [112]. It is also important to acknowledge that engagement in marine science has historically been limited to a relatively privileged group, those with access to higher education, specialized equipment, and research funding [10]. Expanding OL to reflect the broader diversity of ocean perspectives, including multicultural and spiritual relationships with the ocean, can help make OL efforts more inclusive, accessible, and effective. Together, these psychological frameworks highlight the importance of designing OL initiatives that prioritize access, both physical and virtual, and foster meaningful, emotionally resonant experiences with the ocean.

2.8. Adaptive Capacity

Adaptive capacity, within the OL framework, refers to an individual’s ability to respond to and navigate changing ocean conditions, such as changes related to climate impacts, shifting ocean economies, or transformations in ecosystem structure and function [5]. Psychology offers a range of theories that help explain how people perceive, process, and adapt to these changes.

A central concept is psychological resilience, which describes the ability to maintain stable, healthy functioning in the face of adversity [113]. In the OL context, resilience theory helps us understand how individuals and communities cope with environmental disruptions like coral bleaching, fisheries collapse, or sea-level rise. Bonanno [114] defines resilience as the capacity to maintain psychological and physical well-being and experience positive emotions despite exposure to potentially disruptive events. Importantly, resilience is not a fixed trait; instead, it is a dynamic process that requires both adversity and positive adaptation [115]. A closely related concept is psychological flexibility, which refers to the ability to accept, adjust to, and cope with difficult situations [116,117]. Psychological flexibility enhances adaptive capacity by helping individuals shift perspectives and behaviors in response to changing conditions. On the flip side, psychological inflexibility has been shown to moderate climate-related distress, in that people who struggle to adapt psychologically may experience heightened anxiety in response to environmental threats [118]. Social support also plays a key role. Influential research from the late 1980s and early 1990s shows that support from family and friends can buffer the negative effects of stress and improve overall health outcomes [119]. In the OL context, social support can enhance resilience and adaptive capacity, especially in communities facing ocean-related challenges.

The transactional model of stress and coping [120] adds another layer of understanding. This model suggests that stress arises from the interaction between an individual and their environment, and involves two key appraisal stages: primary appraisal, where a situation is evaluated as a threat, challenge, or benign; and secondary appraisal, where the individual assesses their coping resources. Adaptive capacity is shaped by both perceived control and the type of coping strategies used, problem-focused (e.g., taking action) or emotion-focused (e.g., managing feelings). Updates to the model [121] suggest additional pathways between appraisal and stress responses over time, reinforcing the complexity of how people adapt. In the OL context, this model helps explain why simply increasing knowledge may not be enough to drive action. If individuals perceive ocean threats as overwhelming and feel they lack the resources to respond, they may disengage or experience distress. Similarly, self-efficacy theory [122] also plays a critical role. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to take effective action. High self-efficacy boosts confidence in responding to ocean-related challenges, whether that is participating in conservation efforts or adapting livelihoods. This is especially relevant in community-based OL programs, where empowerment and agency are central to engagement.

Finally, environmental identity and values influence adaptive capacity by shaping motivation and emotional responses to ocean change. People with strong nature-relatedness or environmental identity, especially those who identify specifically with the ocean [37,123], are more likely to prioritize adaptation strategies that protect ecosystems. However, this connection can also heighten sensitivity to negative environmental information, increasing vulnerability to eco-anxiety [124]. Together, these psychological frameworks show that adaptive capacity is not just about knowledge or access to resources, as it is deeply tied to identity, emotion, coping mechanisms, and social context. Tools like the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale [125] and the State–Trait Assessment of Resilience [126] can help assess individual readiness to adapt, offering valuable insights for OL research and practice.

2.9. Trust and Transparency

Trust and transparency in the OL framework refers to the degree of trust individuals place in sources of ocean information and their perceptions of how transparent those sources, platforms, and processes are [5]. Psychological research shows that trust plays a significant role in shaping adaptive behaviors, including the adoption of renewable energy technologies and support for climate mitigation policies [127].

Trust is not a single, fixed concept; rather, it is a dynamic interplay of cognitive and emotional processes. Dual-process models of trust suggest that trust arises from two distinct systems: a fast, intuitive process based on positive associations (“impulsive trust”) and a slower, deliberative process grounded in reasoned expectations of reliability and care (“deliberative trust” or “intuitive faith”) [128]. This highlights that much of our trust in institutions and communicators is non-conscious and automatic. The trust heuristic [31] leads individuals to make decisions based on general feelings of trust toward a person, organization, or technology, rather than through detailed analysis. For example, someone might trust a marine biologist simply because they “look professional” or are affiliated with a reputable institution. While heuristics can streamline decision-making, they also make individuals vulnerable to misinformation. Transparency in how ocean data are collected, interpreted, and communicated can help counteract this by making the reasoning behind claims more accessible. Repetition is another psychological mechanism that influences perceived truthfulness. According to Petty et al. [82], repeated exposure to a message increases its familiarity and believability, even if the content is complex or initially unfamiliar. This has clear implications for OL campaigns, which benefit from consistent and repeated messaging across trusted platforms.

Building on this, epistemic trust refers to the trust placed in others as sources of knowledge. It involves not only dependence on experts but also vigilance against misinformation [129]. In OL communication, this means that trust in the content (e.g., climate projections, conservation strategies) is inseparable from trust in the communicator (e.g., scientists, Indigenous knowledge holders, journalists). Source Credibility Theory [130] supports this, showing that a communicator’s expertise and trustworthiness strongly influence how persuasive their message is. The elaboration likelihood model [17] further explains how trust and transparency affect message processing. When individuals are motivated and able to engage deeply, they use the central route, evaluating the quality and transparency of the information. When motivation or ability is low, they rely on peripheral cues, such as the credibility of the source. In both cases, trust plays a pivotal role, and transparency, through clear, detailed, and verifiable communication, can support central processing and enhance message impact. It is also worth noting that some psychological theories view trust as a stable personality trait [131]. Just as people differ in traits like openness or conscientiousness, they may also differ in their general tendency to trust others. This can be measured using tools like the Social Trust Scale [132], which assesses baseline levels of trust across different contexts. Understanding these individual differences can help tailor OL messaging to different audiences, as some may need more reassurance and transparency than others.

Together, these psychological frameworks underscore that trust and transparency are not just communication strategies, they are foundational to how individuals engage with ocean knowledge, assess risk, and decide whether to act. Building trust requires more than presenting facts; it involves fostering relationships, acknowledging uncertainty, and ensuring that the processes behind ocean science and policy are open, inclusive, and understandable.

2.10. “Emoceans”

Emotional connections refer to how individuals feel and emotionally respond when they think about, are near, or engage with the ocean, coasts, and seas, also referred to as “Emoceans” [5]. These emotions, whether positive, negative, or neutral, are all valid and play a critical role in shaping environmental attitudes and behaviors. Emotional responses influence how people value the ocean, perceive threats, and decide whether to act, making this dimension essential to understanding and fostering OL.

Behavioral theories of emotion and action highlight that emotions are strong predictors of behavior. For example, fear appeals can be effective if paired with messages that enhance perceived efficacy, as described in the extended parallel process model [133]. Meanwhile, positive emotions such as hope, pride, and joy can sustain long-term engagement and reinforce protective behaviors. Hope Theory [134] is particularly relevant here, as it emphasizes goal-directed thinking and the belief in one’s ability to achieve desired outcomes, which is critical for fostering adaptive responses to ocean challenges. The concept of ocean optimism, formally launched on World Oceans Day in 2014, also plays a role in emotional engagement. In response to the global inundation of “doom and gloom” narratives about ocean health, ocean optimism promotes the inclusion of marine conservation success stories, including highlighting communities and projects that have achieved meaningful outcomes through social action [135]. As Kelsey [136] explains, “far from making us complacent, stories of resilience and recovery fuel hope. Feeling hopeful enhances our capacity to take meaningful action. And that action flourishes in the supportive community of others.” Emphasizing the power of hope does not suggest that the environmental challenges we face are easy to fix, or trivial, as we know these are wicked problems [137]. However, as Mauch [138] argues, people do not need to be inundated with stories of ecological crises, which can paralyze us, but rather they need “slow hope”, which Mauch defines as stories of “empowering hope—not overnight, but slowly, sometimes invisibly and often against all odds”. Maslow’s [139] concept of peak experiences, which are emotions like wonder, awe, reverence, and humility. These align closely with the kinds of emotional responses elicited by profound encounters with the ocean. Emotional engagement has also been shown to influence the persuasive outcomes of narratives [140,141], including inspiring pro-environmental beliefs and behaviors following exposure to environmental messages [142]. Eliciting strong emotional reactions may also increase public perception of environmental risks [143,144]. Indeed, Kelly et al. [145] emphasize the importance of appealing to emotions in their Ocean Literacy Toolkit, encouraging communicators to use vivid imagery and emotionally resonant storytelling to connect with audiences.

Emotional connections are also shaped by symbolic and empathetic relationships with marine life. Flagship species, defined as charismatic animals used to represent conservation efforts, can evoke strong emotional responses and to build public engagement [146]. Flagship species have been used in successful conservation campaigns, including by the organization RARE [147]. Empathy toward animals, especially those perceived as relatable or intelligent, can deepen emotional bonds and motivate conservation behavior [148]. While terrestrial flagship species like pandas and elephants have received significant attention, there is growing interest in using marine species such as sea turtles as ocean literacy flagships [149] especially in ways that resonate with local communities [150]. Another powerful emotional phenomenon is the environmental epiphany, which is a sudden, transformative moment of clarity or realization about the human–nature relationship. Based on in-depth interviews, Vining and Story [151] identified five types of environmental epiphanies: Aesthetic (overwhelmed by beauty), Intellectual (triggered by new information), Realization (an “aha” moment), Awakening (new clarity or perspective), and Connectedness (feeling part of a larger whole). These experiences, though rare, can lead to lasting changes in attitudes and behaviors. Water-based environments such as oceans, rivers, and waterfalls were frequently cited as settings for these epiphanies, underscoring the emotional and spiritual significance of marine spaces.

Like with many of the other dimensions discussed, there are various ways to measure emotions, including via validated scales such as the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; [152]) or open-ended items such as ‘what emotions, if any, influence your decision to support ocean conservation? [37]. Together, these psychological frameworks demonstrate that emotional connections are not peripheral to Ocean Literacy, rather they are central. Emotions shape how people relate to the ocean, how they interpret information, and whether they choose to act. Recognizing and validating the full spectrum of emotional responses and designing OL initiatives that evoke and support these emotions is essential for building a more engaged, empathetic, and ocean-literate society.

3. Conclusions

Ocean Literacy (OL) is a multidimensional framework that encompasses knowledge, awareness, communication, access and experience, adaptive capacity, trust and transparency, emotional connection, behavior, and activism [5]. Each of these dimensions contributes to how individuals and societies understand, engage with, and act on ocean-related issues. As this entry has explored, psychology offers a powerful and necessary lens through which to examine and support all aspects of OL.

From cognitive theories that explain how ocean knowledge is acquired and processed, to social psychology frameworks that illuminate activism and behavior change, psychology provides both conceptual understanding and practical tools. Emotional responses, including awe, grief, hope, or eco-anxiety, are central to how people relate to the ocean, and psychological models help us understand how these emotions influence attitudes, decisions, and actions. Theories of resilience, identity, and motivation further enrich our understanding of adaptive capacity and engagement, while communication models like the elaboration likelihood model and narrative persuasion offer strategies for effective public outreach.

As McRuer et al. [153] highlight, one of the priorities of OL is the ability to effectively measure its various dimensions. While strides have been made in developing OL-specific tools, challenges remain, particularly in measuring complex constructs like behavior and emotional connection. Psychology researchers bring valuable expertise in survey design, psychometrics, and behavioral assessment, and their ongoing inclusion in OL research is essential. Validated psychological measures, such as the Nature Relatedness Scale [47], Environmental Identity Scale [95], and Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale [125], can be adapted to assess OL dimensions with greater precision and nuance. Importantly, as McRuer et al. [154] argue, OL should not be treated as an “add-on” to marine conservation. Here, it is also argued that psychology should not be an afterthought in interdisciplinary marine research. Participatory, narrative, and emotionally resonant approaches must be embedded in OL initiatives. This inclusion should also extend to humanities research, which should complement the work in science, technology, engineering, and math [155].

As society becomes more ocean-literate, we may also see a rise in eco-anxiety [99], particularly among those who feel deeply connected to marine environments. This is not a reason to avoid increasing OL, as a more ocean-literate society is essential for both human and ocean health. But it does underscore the need to build emotional resilience and provide support systems that help individuals manage and mitigate distress. Integrating psychology scientists, and, by extension, clinical psychologists and other mental health professionals, into OL efforts will be key to fostering a society that is not only informed and engaged but also emotionally equipped to face the challenges ahead. In sum, psychology is not just relevant to OL, it is foundational. By embracing psychological insights and methodologies, we can design more inclusive, effective, and emotionally intelligent ocean literacy initiatives that support both people and the planet.