Agronomy

52 pages, 3912 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Agricultural Crops and Management Practices: The Impact of the Integrated Crop Emission Mitigation Framework on Greenhouse Gas Reduction

by Agampodi Gihan S. D. De Silva, Zainulabdeen Kh. Al-Musawi, Asish Samuel, Shyama Malika Malwalage, Thusyanthini Ramanathan, István Mihály Kulmány and Zoltán Molnár

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010005 - 19 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1499

Abstract

Greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural crops remain a critical challenge for climate change mitigation. This review synthesizes evidence on cropland management interventions and global N₂O mitigation potential. Agricultural practices such as cover cropping, agroforestry, reduced tillage, and diversification show promise in [...] Read more.

Greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural crops remain a critical challenge for climate change mitigation. This review synthesizes evidence on cropland management interventions and global N₂O mitigation potential. Agricultural practices such as cover cropping, agroforestry, reduced tillage, and diversification show promise in reducing CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O emissions, yet uncertainties in measurement, verification, and socio-economic adoption persist. This review highlights that biochar application reduces N₂O emissions by 16.2% (95% CI: 9.8–22.6%) in temperate systems, demonstrating greater consistency compared to no-till agriculture, which shows higher variability (11% reduction, 95% CI: −19% to +1%). Legume-based crop rotations reduce N₂O emissions by up to 39% through improved nitrogen efficiency and increase soil organic carbon by up to 18%. However, reductions in synthetic fertilizer use (65% lower in legume vs. cereal systems) can be offset by the effects of biological nitrogen fixation. Optimized nitrogen fertilization, when combined with enhanced-efficiency fertilizers, can reduce N₂O emissions by 55–64%. Complementing this, global-scale analysis underscores the dominant role of optimized nitrogen fertilization in curbing N₂O emissions while sustaining yields. To bridge gaps between practice-level interventions and global emission dynamics, this paper introduces the ICEMF, a novel approach combining field-based management strategies with spatially explicit emission modeling. Realistic implementation currently achieves 25–35% of technical potential, but bundled interventions combining financial incentives, training, and institutional support can increase adoption to 40–60%, demonstrating ICEMF’s value through integrated, context-adapted approaches. Only peer-reviewed articles published in English between 1997 and 2025 were selected to ensure recent and reliable findings. This review highlights knowledge gaps, evaluates policy and technical trade-offs, and proposes ICEMF as a pathway toward scalable and adaptive mitigation strategies in agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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17 pages, 5098 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Agricultural Lighting Strategies in Portugal: Insights from DLI Mapping

by Dániel Szabó, András Jung, Zsófia Varga, Edina Hajdú, András Revoly, Angela Lausch, Michael Vohland and László Sipos

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2860; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122860 - 12 Dec 2025

Viewed by 657

Abstract

The Daily Light Integral (DLI) maps of Portugal are decision-support tools to provide objective assessments of light availability for plants. These maps allow for the analysis of the spatial and seasonal distribution patterns of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400–700 nm). A semi-automatic DLI [...] Read more.

The Daily Light Integral (DLI) maps of Portugal are decision-support tools to provide objective assessments of light availability for plants. These maps allow for the analysis of the spatial and seasonal distribution patterns of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400–700 nm). A semi-automatic DLI mapping workflow was elaborated and DLI maps with two different scales (2 and 5 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹) were created for Portugal’s mainland, analyzing from regional (Northern regions, Central regions, Southern regions) and seasonal (Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter) perspectives. The DLI values and ranges in Portugal provide a clear spatial gradient from north to south, influenced by geographic location, topography, and climate. In autumn, the DLI values decrease (11–41 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹) and the lowest DLI values are observed in the winter months (7–17 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹). During spring, DLI values increase, reaching their peak in the summer months (41–57 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹). In autumn the DLI range is narrow (11–13 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹), as well as in winter (8–12 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹), and it becomes broader during spring and summer (11–14 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹). To enhance agricultural practices, future DLI maps should be integrated with agro-climatic maps and thematic layers such as soil, water, topography, temperature, and biodiversity. These integrated maps should then be incorporated into agricultural policy and decision-making to improve crop management strategies. Portugal’s agricultural lighting strategy will utilize DLI maps alongside crop-specific recommendations, shading management, local conditions and market demands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Comprehensive Impacts of Agrobiodiversity in Agricultural Ecosystems)

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17 pages, 1161 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] Growth and Yield Responses to Cultivar and Nitrogen Fertilization

by Mariola Staniak, Edyta Baca, Katarzyna Czopek and Anna Stępień-Warda

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2840; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122840 - 10 Dec 2025

Viewed by 809

Abstract

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of cultivar and nitrogen fertilization on the morphological and physiological traits and yield of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) grown in central-eastern Poland. In a strict, two-factor field experiment, four soybean cultivars [...] Read more.

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of cultivar and nitrogen fertilization on the morphological and physiological traits and yield of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) grown in central-eastern Poland. In a strict, two-factor field experiment, four soybean cultivars were used: ‘Abelina’, ‘Malaga’, ‘Coraline’, and ‘Petrina’, and three nitrogen rates: 0, 30, and 60 kg N ha⁻¹. The moderate rate (N30) was applied before sowing, while the higher rate (N60) was divided into two parts, with 50% applied before sowing and 50% top-dressed at BBCH 61. The studies were conducted during two growing seasons. It was shown that both the cultivar and nitrogen fertilization significantly affected plant height, leaf area index (LAI), leaf greenness index (SPAD), and chlorophyll fluorescence indices (Fv/Fm, PI). The interaction among cultivar, fertilization, and years was significant for SPAD and Fv/Fm index, indicating a strong influence of environmental factors on plant response. Nitrogen fertilization increased plant height and chlorophyll content but reduced fluorescence indices. Among the cultivars studied, the late-season cultivar ‘Malaga’ was characterized by the highest SPAD index (502), Fv/Fm (0.800), and PI values (4.3), and achieved the highest seed yield (5.06 t ha⁻¹) and thousand-seed weight (230 g). In contrast, the medium-season cultivar ‘Abelina’ showed the lowest SPAD (454), and significantly lower Fv/Fm and PI values (0.790 and 3.51, respectively), resulting in the lowest yield (4.25 t ha⁻¹) and TSW (169.7 g). The application of a moderate rate of nitrogen (N30) improved the physiological indicators of plants and elements of yield structure without reducing the potential photochemical efficiency of PSII, while a higher rate (N60) did not result in a significant increase in yield, despite a greater number of pods and seeds per plant, which may have been due to a reduction in thousand-seed weight. The results highlight the importance of cultivar selection and moderate N fertilization of soybean grown in temperate climates and indicate the need for further research on the physiological mechanisms that determine cultivar-specific nitrogen use efficiency and yield stability under environmental stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conventional and Alternative Fertilization of Crops)

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17 pages, 355 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Interspecific and Intergeneric Crosses for Clubroot Resistance in Brassica Crops

by Piotr Kamiński and Marta Konopacka

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2827; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122827 - 9 Dec 2025

Viewed by 768

Abstract

Clubroot disease, caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae, is a major global threat, causing severe yield losses of up to 100% in heavily infested fields. Interspecific hybridization is essential for the transfer of clubroot resistance genes among the Brassica species. This review aimed to [...] Read more.

Clubroot disease, caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae, is a major global threat, causing severe yield losses of up to 100% in heavily infested fields. Interspecific hybridization is essential for the transfer of clubroot resistance genes among the Brassica species. This review aimed to describe the sources of clubroot resistance, categorize their types in Brassica crops, and identify the most effective techniques and underutilized sources for both intergeneric and interspecific hybridization. A systematic literature review served as the foundation for expert analysis, encompassing a comprehensive list of known sources of resistance and a detailed description of their characteristics, including monogenic, polygenic, dominant, and recessive traits. In addition, this review specifies techniques suitable for gene transfer, such as markers, embryo rescue, somatic hybridization, and CRISPR/Cas. Based on the literature, underutilized directions for genetic crosses have been proposed. These conclusions suggest that combining biotechnological methods, including markers, CRISPR/Cas, and embryo rescue, with intergeneric crosses offers the potential to transfer resistance genes from previously untapped sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

32 pages, 770 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Bridging the Adoption Gap in Primary Sectors: A Systemic Technology Adoption Model

by Oscar Montes de Oca Munguia and Karen Bayne

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2820; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122820 - 8 Dec 2025

Viewed by 849

Abstract

Innovation adoption in primary sectors—agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and aquaculture—is essential for addressing pressing global challenges, including climate change, resource degradation, and food security. However, a persistent gap exists between innovation potential and actual implementation, with many promising technologies failing to achieve widespread adoption [...] Read more.

Innovation adoption in primary sectors—agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and aquaculture—is essential for addressing pressing global challenges, including climate change, resource degradation, and food security. However, a persistent gap exists between innovation potential and actual implementation, with many promising technologies failing to achieve widespread adoption despite substantial research investments. This paper presents the Systemic Technology Adoption Model (STAM), a conceptual model that addresses critical gaps in adoption theory by integrating four quadrants: technologies, users, finance, and institutions. STAM explicitly recognizes adoption as a systemic process requiring alignment across multiple dimensions. The model’s distinctive contribution lies in its emphasis on inter-quadrant relationships, revealing how variables across different domains interact, compound, and cascade to create either enabling conditions or barriers. Through a test case, we illustrate how the model can enable practitioners to proactively identify potential adoption barriers early in the innovation development process, revealing when barriers in multiple quadrants compound to create obstacles, when cascade effects amplify constraints across the system, and where strategic interventions can address multiple barriers simultaneously. We discuss theoretical contributions and practical implications for practitioners and policy designers, highlighting how STAM could provide stakeholders with a tool for designing more effective adoption strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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30 pages, 923 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Water Management in Chile Peppers and Plant Susceptibility to Phytophthora capsici and Development of Phytophthora Blight: A Review

by Yusuf O. Anifowoshe, Dennis Lozada, Soum Sanogo and Koffi Djaman

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2819; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122819 - 8 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1363

Abstract

The response of chile peppers (Capsicum spp.) to different irrigation systems is an important factor affecting crop yield, quality parameters, and resistance to soil-borne diseases. The choice of irrigation method significantly impacts fruit size development, water-use efficiency, and overall crop production. Research [...] Read more.

The response of chile peppers (Capsicum spp.) to different irrigation systems is an important factor affecting crop yield, quality parameters, and resistance to soil-borne diseases. The choice of irrigation method significantly impacts fruit size development, water-use efficiency, and overall crop production. Research shows that proper irrigation management can increase yields, improve physiological response, and reduce the incidence of Phytophthora blight, a major disease caused by Phytophthora capsici. However, over-irrigation directly harms chile peppers, causing waterlogging, which, together with increasing weed spreads, creates favorable conditions for P. capsici to grow and increase disease susceptibility. Conversely, under-irrigation can induce drought stress that weakens chile peppers and increases their vulnerability to P. capsici. Although the pathogen cannot thrive or spread in dry soils, severely stressed plants become highly susceptible when even brief periods of moisture occur—such as from dew, light rainfall, or a short irrigation event—creating favorable conditions for infection. In addition, lack of proper timing and insufficient irrigation frequency adversely affect fruit quality characteristics, including capsaicin content (spiciness), color, and nutrient composition. Water stress is extremely damaging because it can reduce the biomass of plants, delay flowering, reduce fruit size, or cause significant yield loss. Considering the importance of water management in chile pepper cultivation and optimizing irrigation systems is important to ensure high-quality crops. Disease susceptibility and effects of different irrigation systems, including inadequate irrigation and excessive irrigation, have been reviewed, with an emphasis on the impact of these irrigation methods on plant growth and yield quality, and on Phytophthora blight. This review aims to provide insights into the importance of irrigation management for sustainable and effective chile pepper production and disease control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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20 pages, 3071 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Reliable Gene Expression Normalization in Cucumber Leaves: Identifying Stable Reference Genes Under Drought Stress

by Wojciech Szczechura, Urszula Kłosińska, Marzena Nowakowska, Katarzyna Nowak and Marcin Nowicki

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2811; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122811 - 6 Dec 2025

Viewed by 584

Abstract

Reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) is extensively used to quantify gene expression under drought conditions; however, its reliability depends on the validation of the reference genes under specific conditions. In cucumber, reference genes have rarely been validated under drought conditions. This study identified [...] Read more.

Reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) is extensively used to quantify gene expression under drought conditions; however, its reliability depends on the validation of the reference genes under specific conditions. In cucumber, reference genes have rarely been validated under drought conditions. This study identified stable housekeeping genes for RT-qPCR normalization in the leaves of two inbred lines with contrasting drought responses. Plants underwent a 7-day drought period, with leaf samples collected at multiple points along with watered controls. The expression stability of 13 candidate genes was evaluated using four algorithms: geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and the comparative ΔCt method, with the results integrated using RefFinder. Ten genes producing specific and efficient amplicons were analyzed for stability. CACS and UBI-1 consistently ranked among the most stable genes, with TIP41-like as an additional reliable option, whereas GAPDH and HEL were unstable. GeNorm pairwise variation analysis showed that the two reference genes were sufficient for accurate normalization. Functional validation with three drought-responsive targets (LOX, HsfC1, and CYP72A219) and comparison with RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) fold changes confirmed that normalization using CACS and UBI-1 yielded the most biologically credible expression profiles. These reference genes will facilitate robust RT-qPCR analyses of drought response in cucumber leaves and provide a starting point for validating suitable normalizers in other cucumber organs and related cucurbits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Crop Molecular Breeding and Genetics—2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 10998 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Novel Semi-Hydroponic Root Observation System Combined with Unsupervised Semantic Segmentation for Root Phenotyping

by Kunhong Li, Siyue Xu, Christoph Menz, Feng Yang, Helder Fraga, João A. Santos, Bing Liu and Chenyao Yang

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2794; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122794 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 682

Abstract

Root system analysis remains methodologically challenging in plant research: traditional soil cultivation obstructs comprehensive root observation, whereas hydroponic visualization lacks ecological relevance due to soil environment exclusion—a critical limitation for crops like soybean. This manuscript developed a cost-effective hybrid imaging system integrating transparent [...] Read more.

Root system analysis remains methodologically challenging in plant research: traditional soil cultivation obstructs comprehensive root observation, whereas hydroponic visualization lacks ecological relevance due to soil environment exclusion—a critical limitation for crops like soybean. This manuscript developed a cost-effective hybrid imaging system integrating transparent acrylic plates, semi-permeable membranes, and natural soil substrates with high-resolution imaging and controlled illumination, enabling non-destructive root monitoring in quasi-natural soil conditions. Complementing this hardware innovation, this manuscript proposed an unsupervised semantic segmentation algorithm that synergizes path planning with an enhanced DBSCAN framework, achieving the precise extraction of primary and lateral root architectures. Experimental validation demonstrated superior performance in soybean root analysis, with segmentation metrics reaching 0.8444 accuracy, 0.9203 recall, 0.8743 F1-score, and 0.7921 mIoU—significantly outperforming existing unsupervised methods (

p < 0.01

). Strong correlations (R² > 0.94) with WinRHIZO in quantifying root length, projected area, dimensional parameters, and lateral root counts confirmed system reliability. This soil-compatible phenotyping platform establishes new opportunities for root research, with future developments targeting multi-crop adaptability and complex soil condition applications through modular hardware redesign and 3D reconstruction algorithm integration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Crop Production: Unveiling the Vital Role of Plant Roots and Their Dynamic Interplay with Soil and the Environment)

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40 pages, 2983 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Soil Moisture Sensing Technologies: Principles, Applications, and Challenges in Agriculture

by Danilo Loconsole, Michele Elia, Giulia Conversa, Barbara De Lucia, Giuseppe Cristiano and Antonio Elia

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2788; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122788 - 3 Dec 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4783

Abstract

Efficient soil moisture monitoring is fundamental to precision agriculture, enabling improved irrigation management, enhanced crop productivity, and sustainable water use. This review comprehensively evaluates soil moisture sensing technologies, classifying them into invasive and non-invasive approaches. The underlying operating principles, strengths, and limitations, as [...] Read more.

Efficient soil moisture monitoring is fundamental to precision agriculture, enabling improved irrigation management, enhanced crop productivity, and sustainable water use. This review comprehensively evaluates soil moisture sensing technologies, classifying them into invasive and non-invasive approaches. The underlying operating principles, strengths, and limitations, as well as documented practical applications, are critically discussed for each technology. Invasive methods, including dielectric sensors, matric potential devices, heat-pulse sensors, and microstructured optical fibres, offer high-resolution data but require careful installation and calibration to account for environmental and soil-specific variables such as texture, salinity, and temperature. Non-invasive technologies—such as microwave remote sensing, electromagnetic induction, and ground-penetrating radar—enable large-scale monitoring without disturbing the soil profile; however, they face challenges in terms of resolution, cost, and data interpretation. Key performance factors across all sensor types include installation methodology, environmental sensitivity, spatial representativeness, and integration with decision-support systems. The review also addresses recent innovations such as biodegradable and Micro–Electro–Mechanical Systems sensors, the incorporation of Internet of Things platforms, and the application of artificial intelligence for enhanced data analytics and sensor calibration. While sensor deployment has demonstrated tangible benefits for irrigation efficiency and yield improvement, widespread adoption remains constrained by technical, economic, and infrastructural barriers, particularly for smallholder farmers. The analysis concludes by identifying research gaps and recommending strategies to facilitate the broader uptake of soil moisture sensors, with a focus on cost reduction, calibration standardisation, and integration into climate-resilient agricultural frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Soil and Water Sensor Technologies for Precision Agriculture and Environmental Monitoring)

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19 pages, 819 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Proline-Rich Specific Yeast Derivatives Enhance Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) Water Status and Enable Reduced Irrigation Volumes

by Harsh Tiwari, Pier Giorgio Bonicelli, Clara Ripa, Stefano Poni, Fabrizio Battista and Tommaso Frioni

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2759; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122759 - 29 Nov 2025

Viewed by 610

Abstract

In plants, proline acts as a compatible osmolyte with multiple stress-related functions, contributing to cell turgor regulation and the dissipation of excess energy. In this study, the use of a proline-rich yeast derivative (SYD) on pot-grown grapevines cv. Chardonnay was tested as a [...] Read more.

In plants, proline acts as a compatible osmolyte with multiple stress-related functions, contributing to cell turgor regulation and the dissipation of excess energy. In this study, the use of a proline-rich yeast derivative (SYD) on pot-grown grapevines cv. Chardonnay was tested as a priming strategy to enhance vine water status and water deficit tolerance. Well-watered control vines were compared to those subjected to reduced irrigation at 80% of daily evapotranspiration for 43 days, with and without foliar SYD applications. Additionally, a group of vines received only 40% of daily evapotranspiration (ET) along with foliar SYD applications. The soil moisture content clearly mirrored the three irrigation levels (full water, 80% ET, and 40% ET). However, considering vines kept at 80%ET, SYD-treated vines had a consistently higher midday leaf water potential than controls (+0.22 MPa on Day of Year—DOY—214). SYD-treated vines kept at 80% ET and control vines at 100% ET exhibited similar stomatal conductance and assimilation rates (0.24 vs. 0.25 mol m⁻² s⁻¹, and 14.9 vs. 15.3 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ on average from all measurements), while control vines kept at 80% ET lagged behind SYD-treated vines at 80% ET. On July 20th (DOY 201), in SYD-treated vines kept at 80% ET, leaves accumulated nearly twice the proline concentration compared to control vines receiving the same irrigation (17.7 vs. 10.6 µmol/g). Treated vines kept at 40% ET had stomatal conductance and leaf assimilation rates comparable to control vines at 80% ET (0.17 vs. 0.20 mol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 11.7 vs. 11.5 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ on average). At harvest, the average yield of SYD-treated vines kept at 80% ET was similar to fully watered control vines maintained at 100% ET (1.75 vs. 1.82 kg), but showed higher soluble solids concentrations (20.9° Brix, vs. 19° Brix in fully watered control vines) and lower average titratable acidity (6.62 g/L vs. 7.7 g/L in fully watered control vines), while no differences were observed in the average titratable acidity between control vines kept at 80% ET and SYD-treated vines kept at 40% ET (6.15 g/L). Proline-rich SYD increased endogenous leaf proline levels and vine water status, also interacting with H₂O₂ accumulation, and resulted in long-term better physiological functioning at comparable water availability. The applications improved grapevine productive performance, effectively mitigating the negative impacts of reduced irrigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Addressing Water Scarcity in Agriculture: Innovative Management Strategies for Sustainable Cropping Systems)

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16 pages, 1738 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enhanced Micropropagation of Lachenalia ‘Rainbow Bells’ and ‘Riana’ Bulblets Using a Temporary Immersion Bioreactor Compared with Solid Medium Cultures

by Małgorzata Malik, Anna Kapczyńska, Andrea Copetta, Justyna Mazur, Marco Savona, Arianna Cassetti, Michela Montone and Małgorzata Maślanka

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2757; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122757 - 29 Nov 2025

Viewed by 650

Abstract

This study evaluated the effect of the culture system (temporary immersion bioreactor (TIB) vs. solid culture) on the micropropagation efficiency of two Lachenalia cultivars, ‘Rainbow Bells’ and ‘Riana’. Morphological and biochemical responses were analyzed under different immersion frequencies (15 min every 24 h, [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the effect of the culture system (temporary immersion bioreactor (TIB) vs. solid culture) on the micropropagation efficiency of two Lachenalia cultivars, ‘Rainbow Bells’ and ‘Riana’. Morphological and biochemical responses were analyzed under different immersion frequencies (15 min every 24 h, 15 min every 8 h, and 5 min every 8 h) and on solid medium. TIB, regardless of the immersion frequency, was more efficient in terms of biomass growth (3.27–3.95-fold increase) and the number of obtained bulblets (17.80–19.08 bulbs). The response to culture conditions was genotype-dependent. ‘Rainbow Bells’ exhibited higher biomass growth and bulblet number, whereas ‘Riana’ produced fewer but heavier bulblets (4.39 and 2.09 of biomass growth, 23.19 and 9.97 bulbs per 1 g, 0.23 and 0.31 g per bulb, respectively, for ‘Rainbow Bells’ and Riana’). The most effective bulblet multiplication was obtained under the 1 × 15 min regime for ‘Rainbow Bells’; the same frequency promoted bulblet enlargement in ‘Riana’. Principal component analysis (PCA) explained 77% of total variance, revealing strong genotype separation: ‘Rainbow Bells’ clustered with traits linked to growth intensity and phenolic accumulation, while ‘Riana’ correlated with bulb storage parameters. The results support the use of TIBs to improve Lachenalia micropropagation, bulb quality, and future automation, and indicate that further research should focus on optimizing culture parameters for each genotype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Tissue Culture and Plant Somatic Embryogenesis–2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 1084 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Effects of High Temperature Stress and Its Mitigation Through the Application of Biostimulants in Controlled Environment Agriculture

by Anna Gardiner-Piggott, Martin McAinsh, Gabriela Toledo-Ortiz and Douglas J. Orr

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2742; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122742 - 28 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1014

Abstract

Food security and supply networks are becoming an ever-increasing concern requiring innovative practices to deal with the contributing factors. Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) offers an alternative to conventional cropping systems for increasing the yields of certain produce types. Crop yields (tons/hectare/year) in CEA [...] Read more.

Food security and supply networks are becoming an ever-increasing concern requiring innovative practices to deal with the contributing factors. Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) offers an alternative to conventional cropping systems for increasing the yields of certain produce types. Crop yields (tons/hectare/year) in CEA are reported to range between 10 and 100 times higher than open-field agriculture, and the water use in CEA is typically about 4.5–16% of that from conventional farms per unit mass of produce. However, these systems can be energy intensive due to temperature regulation requirements, compromising their environmental and economic viability. Energy is the second largest overhead cost in CEA with carbon footprints being reported as 5.6–16.7 times and 2.3–3.3 times greater than that of open-field agriculture for indoor vertical farms and greenhouses, respectively. This can be offset, in part, by reducing the reliance on cooling systems. However, high temperature stress negatively impacts crops at morphological, cellular, metabolic, and molecular levels, reducing produce quality and quantity. Biostimulants are additives which can benefit plant growth through ameliorating stress. This review considers recent research on the effects of heat stress on a variety of crops commonly grown in CEA and the categories of biostimulants that have known thermoprotective qualities. Seaweed extracts, chitin/chitosan, protein hydrolysates and amino acids, inorganic compounds, beneficial microorganisms, and humic substances are explored, alongside the known benefits, limitations, and knowledge gaps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agriculture for Food and Nutrition Security)

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16 pages, 2363 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Phenology-Informed Strategies for Climate-Resilient Peach Production: Shoot Growth, Leaf Fall, and Flowering of Two Low-Chill Cultivars in Humid Subtropical Central Taiwan

by Hsuan Lee, Chun-Che Huang and Syuan-You Lin

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2748; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122748 - 28 Nov 2025

Viewed by 668

Abstract

Global warming has increasingly reduced winter chill accumulation in traditional fruit-growing regions, disrupting dormancy release and bloom synchrony in deciduous fruit crops such as peach (Prunus persica). To evaluate adaptation potential under subtropical conditions, a three-year field study was conducted in [...] Read more.

Global warming has increasingly reduced winter chill accumulation in traditional fruit-growing regions, disrupting dormancy release and bloom synchrony in deciduous fruit crops such as peach (Prunus persica). To evaluate adaptation potential under subtropical conditions, a three-year field study was conducted in central Taiwan using two low-chill cultivars, ‘Tainung No.4 Ruby’ (~100 chilling units, CU) and ‘Tainung No. 7 HongLing’ (~77 CU). Our results demonstrate that both cultivars produced long shoots (>34 nodes), completed vegetative growth by October, and reached natural leaf fall by mid-November. Nonlinear Gompertz and Logistic models accurately described shoot elongation dynamics and growth cessation. Flowering began in mid-January for ‘Tainung No. 7 HongLing’ and mid-February for ‘Tainung No. 4 Ruby’. Seasonal chill accumulation strongly influenced the onset of flower budbreak between apical and basal buds: in the milder 2023–2024 winter (~120 CU), apical–basal onset lags were wider (22 days in ‘Tainung No. 7 HongLing’), whereas in the colder 2024–2025 winter (~280 CU), these lags shortened (14 days). Notably, ‘Tainung No. 4 Ruby’ maintained a consistent apical–basal onset lag between seasons, indicating greater positional stability under variable chilling. Field-estimated CU thresholds for flower budbreak exceeded the reported chilling requirements, suggesting reduced chilling efficiency under fluctuating subtropical winter temperatures. These results demonstrate that integrating shoot growth, leaf fall timing, and chill–heat accumulation provides a phenology-informed framework for cultivar selection and orchard scheduling, thereby enhancing climate resilience of peach production in warm-winter regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Its Impact on Crop Production: Enhancing Resilience and Environmental Sustainability)

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19 pages, 2058 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) Influence Yield and Essential Oil Content and Composition of Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) Under Different Water Regimes

by Andrzej Sałata, Renata Nurzyńska-Wierdak, Andrzej Kalisz, Sara Ibánez-Asensio, Héctor Moreno-Ramón, Joanna Majkowska-Gadomska and Anna Francke

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2753; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122753 - 28 Nov 2025

Viewed by 612

Abstract

Essential oil-bearing plants are valued for their aromatic qualities and medicinal value. An example of such a plant is sage (Salvia officinalis L.), one of the most important aromatic herbal plants. Rich in essential oil (EO), sage herb is used in pharmaceutical [...] Read more.

Essential oil-bearing plants are valued for their aromatic qualities and medicinal value. An example of such a plant is sage (Salvia officinalis L.), one of the most important aromatic herbal plants. Rich in essential oil (EO), sage herb is used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic production and as a spice. This study was conducted to determine the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on the morphological characteristics, yield, and EO production of sage under different irrigated conditions: 95 ± 5, 75 ± 5, 50 ± 5, and 25 ± 5% field capacity (FC). Maximum herb dry biomass yield and leaf dry biomass yield were obtained at the 95, 75% FC irrigation level, and the highest leaf EO (1.361%) was at 75% FC. The high yield of herb and leaf dry biomass, as well as the highest EO in herb and leaves, was observed with AMF. A group of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes dominated the EO. The main compounds were 1,8-cineole, α-thujone, β-thujone, camphor, E-caryophyllene, and viridiflorol. The chemical composition of EO has changed under irrigation. Under severe stress (25% FC) and moderate soil moisture (50% FC), the proportion of monoterpene hydrocarbons and oxidized sesquiterpenes was higher than at 75% and 95% FC. The proportion of camphor, α-thujone, and β-thujone was higher with AMF only under severe water stress. With increasing soil moisture, the proportion of α-thujone and β-thujone in EO decreased. A positive correlation was found between EO content and the number of leaves per plant. Our results indicate the prospects for practical application of AMF in combination with the irrigation of sage plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cultivation and Utilization of Herbal and Aromatic Plants)

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28 pages, 3279 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Early Stress Resilience in Turfgrass: Comparative Germination and Seedling Responses of Lolium perenne L. and Poa pratensis L. Under Osmotic and Salt Stress

by Ligia Craciun, Rodolfo J. Bacharach Sánchez, Diana M. Mircea, Adrián Sapiña-Solano, Radu E. Sestras, Monica Boscaiu, Adriana F. Sestras and Oscar Vicente

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2719; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122719 - 26 Nov 2025

Viewed by 651

Abstract

Seed germination and early seedling development represent critical stages for turfgrass establishment under increasingly frequent drought and salinity constraints. This study evaluated the germination performance of three cultivars of Lolium perenne L. and three cultivars of Poa pratensis L. exposed to iso-osmotic drought [...] Read more.

Seed germination and early seedling development represent critical stages for turfgrass establishment under increasingly frequent drought and salinity constraints. This study evaluated the germination performance of three cultivars of Lolium perenne L. and three cultivars of Poa pratensis L. exposed to iso-osmotic drought stress simulated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and salt stress induced by NaCl. Germination percentage, mean germination time, germination index, seedling vigor index, and radicle and plumule elongation were quantified, and post-stress recovery tests assessed the reversibility of stress effects. Osmotic restriction imposed by PEG caused stronger inhibition of germination and seedling growth than NaCl at equivalent water potentials. L. perenne showed higher overall tolerance, maintaining faster emergence and greater seedling vigor across treatments, while P. pratensis was more sensitive but exhibited substantial germination recovery after stress removal. Cultivar-dependent variation was evident in both species, and multivariate analyses consistently differentiated tolerant and sensitive genotypes. The contrasting germination strategies, with rapid activation in L. perenne and delayed, recovery-oriented germination in P. pratensis, highlight species-specific adaptive responses to water and salt stress. These findings provide a physiological basis for selecting resilient turfgrass cultivars suited to drought- and salinity-prone environments, contributing to sustainable turfgrass establishment and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Turfgrass Management for Enhanced Sustainability and Conservation)

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24 pages, 1933 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Aerial Spray Application of Plant Protection Products for Grapevine Downy Mildew Control: Efficacy and Canopy Deposit Evaluation in Semi-Field Trials

by Margherita Furiosi, Sara Triachini, Gian Maria Beone, Maria Chiara Fontanella, Sonia Gaaied, Ghada Arbi, Anastasia Lomadze, Marco Grella, Eric Mozzanini, Emilio Dicembrini, Luca Languasco, Monica Fittipaldi Broussard, Luca Nassi, Tito Caffi and Nicoleta Alina Suciu

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2703; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122703 - 24 Nov 2025

Viewed by 972

Abstract

A growing interest in aerial drone applications has led to the European regulatory proposal 2022/0196/COD, which considers aerial spraying in steep-slope vineyards safer for human health and the environment. Nevertheless, disease control in perennial crops by aerial applications remains under-investigated. This study aims [...] Read more.

A growing interest in aerial drone applications has led to the European regulatory proposal 2022/0196/COD, which considers aerial spraying in steep-slope vineyards safer for human health and the environment. Nevertheless, disease control in perennial crops by aerial applications remains under-investigated. This study aims to identify suitable Plant Protection Products (PPPs) for aerial application in vineyards and analytical methods to quantify PPP deposits. A standardized protocol for controlling grapevine downy mildew was developed, testing Metalaxyl-M and copper-based fungicides’ efficacy and foliar depositions. As Italian law prohibits aerial application, an Unmanned Aerial Spray System (UASS) constrained to the ground simulated aerial spray. Leaves were sampled on predetermined days after treatment application for both fungicides’ efficacy evaluation and deposit quantification. Metalaxyl-M applied from UASS showed an efficacy comparable to ground sprays at pre- and post-flowering (≈70%), while copper efficacy from UASS was lower (≈47–63%) at each stage. Aerial sprayings resulted in higher deposits in the upper canopy, potentially explaining the lower efficacy of copper fungicides, while Metalaxyl-M’s systemicity partially compensated for the uneven vertical distribution, improving disease control. This study established a methodology for aerial PPP testing in vineyards, further studies are needed to confirm these findings across different years and locations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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24 pages, 10480 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Detecting Abandoned Cropland in Monsoon-Influenced Regions Using HLS Imagery and Interpretable Machine Learning

by Sinyoung Park, Sanae Kang, Byungmook Hwang and Dongwook W. Ko

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2702; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122702 - 24 Nov 2025

Viewed by 2066

Abstract

Abandoned cropland has been expanding due to complex socio-economic factors such as urbanization, demographic shifts, and declining agricultural profitability. As abandoned cropland simultaneously brings ecological, environmental, and social risks and benefits, quantitative monitoring is essential to assess its overall impact. Satellite image-based spatial [...] Read more.

Abandoned cropland has been expanding due to complex socio-economic factors such as urbanization, demographic shifts, and declining agricultural profitability. As abandoned cropland simultaneously brings ecological, environmental, and social risks and benefits, quantitative monitoring is essential to assess its overall impact. Satellite image-based spatial data are suitable for identifying spectral characteristics related to crop phenology, and recent research has advanced in detecting large-scale abandoned cropland through changes in time-series spectral characteristics. However, frequent cloud covers and highly fragmented croplands, which vary across regions and climatic conditions, still pose significant challenges for satellite-based detection. This study combined Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) imagery, offering high temporal (2–3 days) and spatial (30 m) resolution, with the eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) algorithm to capture seasonal spectral variations among rice paddy, upland fields, and abandoned croplands. An XGBoost model with a Balanced Bagging Classifier (BBC) was used to mitigate class imbalance. The model achieved an accuracy of 0.84,

C o h e n ’ s k a p p a

0.71, and

F 2 s c o r e

0.84. SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis identified major features such as NIR (May–June), SWIR2 (January), MCARI (September), and BSI (January–April), reflecting phenological differences among cropland types. Overall, this study establishes a robust framework for large-scale cropland monitoring that can be adapted to different regional and climatic settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precision Monitoring of Crops and Pastures Using UAV, Satellite, and Sensor Technologies)

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25 pages, 3301 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Biodegradability of Textiles Made from Natural Fibers During Composting and Vermicomposting

by Ales Hanc, Tereza Hrebeckova, Pavel Michal, Maha Hleibieh, Tereza Peskova and Dominika Koronovska

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2700; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122700 - 24 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1017

Abstract

The increasing generation of natural fiber textile waste highlights the urgent need for sustainable management strategies. This study investigated the biodegradation of textiles made from viscose, cotton, and linen under controlled composting and vermicomposting conditions in a four-month cycle to assess their decomposition [...] Read more.

The increasing generation of natural fiber textile waste highlights the urgent need for sustainable management strategies. This study investigated the biodegradation of textiles made from viscose, cotton, and linen under controlled composting and vermicomposting conditions in a four-month cycle to assess their decomposition dynamics and the quality of the resulting products. Composting was performed by an outdoor method and under controlled conditions, while vermicomposting included outdoor and home-scale variants using Eisenia andrei. Textile biodegradability and quality of the final product were quantified by weight loss, microscopic evaluation, and changes in pH, electrical conductivity, volatile solids, the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C/N), macroelement content, and levels of potentially toxic compounds. By month 2, textiles reached complete (100%) degradation in outdoor composting and in both vermicomposting systems; controlled composting achieved 87% degradability at month 2, 94% at month 3, and 99% at month 4. Across all systems, the C/N ratio stabilized around 11, and the resulting compost and vermicompost met quality standards for nutrients and safety criteria for toxicity. The findings confirm that both composting and vermicomposting are suitable methods for processing natural fiber textile waste, yielding environmentally safe and agronomically valuable products that support circular waste management in the textile sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Composting and Vermicomposting)

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16 pages, 2732 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Tools to Produce Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) for Sowing Seed: Optical Differentiation of Seed Ripening Stages Through a Portable Spectrometer

by Enrico Santangelo, Lavinia Moscovini, Simona Violino and Alberto Assirelli

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2680; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122680 - 21 Nov 2025

Viewed by 931

Abstract

Obtaining high-quality seeds is important for two reasons: from a nutritional point of view, for species in which the seed is the edible part; and for producing quality seeds for reproduction, which is fundamental for successful cultivation. Producing seed for reproduction in hemp [...] Read more.

Obtaining high-quality seeds is important for two reasons: from a nutritional point of view, for species in which the seed is the edible part; and for producing quality seeds for reproduction, which is fundamental for successful cultivation. Producing seed for reproduction in hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), presents many challenges and requires specific precautions. The present study analyzed the ripeness of hemp fruits using a portable and low-cost VIS/NIR spectrometer that covered a spectral range of 740–1070 nm. This study proposed the first attempt to apply optical systems to the hemp seed sowing production chain. The aim is to facilitate the handling of seeds at harvest and the complex post-harvest seed management. Seeds from two monoecious European industrial hemp genotypes, Carmaleonte and Codimono, were collected at the three growth stages of fruit ripening according to the BBCH scale from 50% of ripe fruits (BBCH 85 stage) to fully ripe fruits (BBCH 89 stage). The reflectance spectra showed a decreasing order BBCH 89-87 > 85 with the most obvious difference between the curves observed at a wavelength of 955 nm. At this wavelength, the reflectance at the BBCH 85 stage was clearly lower than at the BBCH 87 and 89 stages. In terms of germination rate the seeds collected at BBCH-85 had a higher percentage respect the other growing stages. These results demonstrate that a simple, portable spectrophotometer can discriminate the different ripening stages of the hemp seeds, thus confirming the effectiveness of optical systems in improving the production of certified seeds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Industrial Crops Production in Mediterranean Climate)

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33 pages, 2771 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Integrated Approaches in Robotic Raspberry Harvesting

by Albert Suchopár, Jiří Kuře, Barbora Kuřetová and Monika Hromasová

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2677; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122677 - 21 Nov 2025

Viewed by 714

Abstract

Raspberry cultivation represents a high-value global industry; however, concerns regarding its sustainability have been raised due to the high costs and labour shortages associated with manual harvesting. These challenges represent significant motivators for the development of robotic systems. This review article analyses contemporary [...] Read more.

Raspberry cultivation represents a high-value global industry; however, concerns regarding its sustainability have been raised due to the high costs and labour shortages associated with manual harvesting. These challenges represent significant motivators for the development of robotic systems. This review article analyses contemporary robotic harvesting technologies, with a particular focus on integrated systems, machine vision and end-effectors. A review of the relevant literature was conducted in order to identify and compare the main development trends represented by academic and commercial prototypes. The analysis demonstrates that deep learning methodologies, most notably YOLO architectures, predominate within the domain of machine vision, thereby ensuring the effective identification and assessment of fruit ripeness. In order to ensure that the handling of the subject is done in a gentle manner, it is recommended that soft robotic end-effectors which are equipped with sensors and which minimise mechanical damage be used. In view of the fact that the number of studies focusing directly on raspberries is limited, the present study also analyses transferable technologies from other types of soft fruit. Consequently, future research should concentrate on integrating machine vision models that have been trained using raspberries and developing advanced soft end-effectors with integrated tactile sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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21 pages, 2100 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Use of Digital Technologies into Agroforestry Systems: A Review

by Lorenzo Pippi, Michael Alibani, Daniele Antichi, Giovanni Caruso, Matteo Finocchi, Marco Fontanelli, Michele Moretti, Cristina Nali, Elisa Pellegrini, Andrea Peruzzi, Alice Ripamonti, Samuele Risoli, Nicola Silvestri, Lorenzo Gabriele Tramacere and Lorenzo Cotrozzi

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2671; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122671 - 21 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1163

Abstract

Agroforestry, an integrated land-use practice combining trees and woody shrubs with crop and animal farming, offers significant ecological and agricultural benefits, including enhanced biodiversity, improved soil fertility, and increased resilience to environmental pressures. Despite its advantages, agroforestry faces challenges such as high initial [...] Read more.

Agroforestry, an integrated land-use practice combining trees and woody shrubs with crop and animal farming, offers significant ecological and agricultural benefits, including enhanced biodiversity, improved soil fertility, and increased resilience to environmental pressures. Despite its advantages, agroforestry faces challenges such as high initial investments, long maturation periods for trees, land tenure issues and a high level of complexity in technical management. Digital agriculture introduces advanced technologies and sensors, which provide precise data on soil moisture, nutrient levels, and plant health, enabling more efficient resource use and better farm management. Integrating these sensing technologies into agroforestry can address key challenges, optimize irrigation and nutrient management, and enhance overall system productivity and sustainability. This review explores the interaction between agroforestry and digitalization, highlighting case studies, and discusses the potential for these technologies to support sustainable agriculture and climate change mitigation. Increased investment in research and development, along with supportive policies, is essential for advancing the adoption of these innovative practices in agroforestry. Full article

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24 pages, 2143 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Influence of Alternative Weed Control Under “Sauvignon Blanc” Vines on Grape Characteristics and Environmental Footprint

by Peter Berk, Denis Stajnko, Andrej Paušič and Mario Lešnik

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2666; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112666 - 20 Nov 2025

Viewed by 792

Abstract

Chemical control of weeds with the herbicide glyphosate under vines in the vineyards is currently easy, effective, and cheap. There are currently no completely equivalent alternative herbicides or suitable mechanical control methods that have the same efficacy in suppressing weeds under vines in [...] Read more.

Chemical control of weeds with the herbicide glyphosate under vines in the vineyards is currently easy, effective, and cheap. There are currently no completely equivalent alternative herbicides or suitable mechanical control methods that have the same efficacy in suppressing weeds under vines in vineyards as glyphosate. Therefore, in this research, we tested two alternative technologies for controlling weeds under the vines as a counterweight to the predominant control approach with the herbicide glyphosate: (1) chemical control with pelargonic acid, acetic acid, and the plant extract-based fertilizer Stopeco^® with herbicidal action, and (2) mechanical control with a combined tool consisting of a rotary star tiller and finger weeder. A comparative analysis was conducted on time and fuel consumption, the extent of the carbon footprint, grape yield, and quality, which showed that the tested alternative methods of weed control were not comparable to the herbicide glyphosate in terms of effectiveness in weed suppression but were comparable at grape yield. In our trial, at the number of treatments we performed, differences in environmental footprint between different treatments were significant (glyphosate variant 10.55–11.21 gha anno⁻¹; other variants 7.48–8.08 gha anno⁻¹). Alternative mechanical and chemical methods need to be applied at least three to four times a year to achieve results comparable to those from two applications of glyphosate. For this reason, it is possible that, in the case of a slightly increased number of passes by mechanical tools or a slightly increased number of sprayings with alternative preparations to reach the efficacy level of glyphosate treatments, the foot print parameter, CO₂ emissions and global warming potential (GWP) parameter in alternative treatments would no longer be more favorable than when using the herbicide glyphosate twice a year. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Integrated Pest Management: New Tools and Tactics for Pest Control)

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32 pages, 1184 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Microalgae-Based Strategies for Soil Health and Crop Productivity: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Pathways to Climate-Resilient Agriculture

by Wogene Solomon Kabato, Niguss Hailegnaw, Tesfatsion Ermias Chaffamo, Asish Samuel, Agampodi Gihan S. D. De Silva and Zoltán Molnár

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2669; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112669 - 20 Nov 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1958

Abstract

Microalgae hold significant potential as nature-based solutions in agriculture, offering benefits such as nitrogen fixation, enhanced nutrient cycling, stimulation of beneficial microbes, strengthening soil structure, and carbon sequestration. Yet, despite their potential, the role of microalgae, particularly through their interactions with soil systems, [...] Read more.

Microalgae hold significant potential as nature-based solutions in agriculture, offering benefits such as nitrogen fixation, enhanced nutrient cycling, stimulation of beneficial microbes, strengthening soil structure, and carbon sequestration. Yet, despite their potential, the role of microalgae, particularly through their interactions with soil systems, remains largely underexplored. Their ability to generate bioactive substances such as phytohormones, amino acids, and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) fosters soil aggregation, nutrient availability, water retention, biological soil crust, and soil restoration, which ultimately supports plant growth and productivity. Moreover, the thermochemical conversion of microalgal biomass into biochar offers an effective strategy to improve carbon sequestration while simultaneously enriching soil nutrient content, thereby increasing crop productivity. While microalgae-based products often demonstrate strong efficacy under laboratory and greenhouse conditions, their performance in the field remains constrained by soil physicochemical properties, ecological incompatibility, competition with native microbial communities, and environmental variability, leading to inconsistent outcomes and highlighting the need for soil-specific, field-relevant strategies. Furthermore, the lack of standardized and cost-effective cultivation, formulation, and processing, along with low biomass yield and energy-intensive production, continues to limit their large-scale adoption in agricultural systems. Therefore, this narrative review aimed to discuss the mechanisms of coupling microalgal biomass and biochar to enhance soil health and crop growth, while also addressing field-performance constraints. It provides a balanced view of the potential and challenges of microalgae-based technologies for sustainable soil management and crop productivity. Overall, microalgae possess significant potential to improve soil health, increase crop yields, and contribute to sustainable agriculture that can withstand climate challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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20 pages, 330 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of Foliar Application of Copper, Manganese, Molybdenum, and Zinc on the Chemical Composition and Malting Quality of Barley Cultivars

by Barbara Stadnik, Renata Tobiasz-Salach and Dagmara Migut

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2667; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112667 - 20 Nov 2025

Viewed by 840

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of foliar application of selected micro-nutrients on the chemical composition and malting quality of spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). The scientific literature lacks in-depth studies that assess the effect of foliar application [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of foliar application of selected micro-nutrients on the chemical composition and malting quality of spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). The scientific literature lacks in-depth studies that assess the effect of foliar application of micronutrients on barley malting quality. Most studies (especially under field conditions) focus on nitrogen fertilization rather than individual micronutrients. Three brewing-type barley cultivars (Baryłka, KWS Irina, and RGT Planet) were evaluated under foliar micronutrient fertilization (Cu, Mn, Mo, Zn). Fertilizers were applied at doses of 2 L ha⁻¹ for Cu, Mn, and Zn and 1 L ha⁻¹ for Mo. The experiment examined the hectoliter mass, theoretical extractability, contents of selected micro- and macronutrients, and the protein, fat, fiber, and ash contents of the grain. Furthermore, the following characteristics of barley malt were determined, i.e., moisture, protein, extractivity, Kolbach index, and diastatic power. The results showed significant variability in grain and malt quality depending on the cultivar and year. The Baryłka cultivar was characterized by the highest grain density (66.3 kg hL⁻¹) and protein content (10.9% d.m.), while RGT Planet had the highest extractivity and the most favorable malting profile. Foliar supplementation had a slightly positive effect on the average content of trace elements in barley. Mn application increased grain Ca content by 5.6% compared with the control, while foliar Zn fertilization resulted in the highest zinc concentration (a 24.7% increase). No significant effect of fertilization on malt quality was observed, but a significant interaction of experimental factors in extractivity, Kolbach index, and diastatic power was noted. The obtained results indicate that a single foliar application of microelements affects the contents of minerals and protein in the grain, but it does not lead to a significant improvement in malting parameters. This suggests the need for further research on dosage, application date, and interactions between the cultivar and environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrient Enrichment and Crop Quality in Sustainable Agriculture)

15 pages, 2254 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Seed Dormancy and Germination Characteristics in Six Solanum Species Distributed on the Korean Peninsula

by Ji-Yoon Park, Hyung-Ju Lee, Hyeon-Min Kim, Jun-Hyeok Kim, Do-Hyun Kim, Gyu-Young Chung, Chae-Sun Na and Seung Youn Lee

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2652; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112652 - 19 Nov 2025

Viewed by 764

Abstract

Crop wild relatives (CWRs) are critical resources for crop improvement and addressing food security. The genus Solanum includes many wild species genetically related to major crops. However, seed propagation methods for Solanum taxa distributed on the Korean Peninsula are not well-established. In this [...] Read more.

Crop wild relatives (CWRs) are critical resources for crop improvement and addressing food security. The genus Solanum includes many wild species genetically related to major crops. However, seed propagation methods for Solanum taxa distributed on the Korean Peninsula are not well-established. In this study, seed morphology and effects of incubation conditions on germination and dormancy were evaluated in 6 Solanum species classified as CWRs in Korea: Solanum lyratum, S. japonense, S. nigrum, S. sarrachoides, S. americanum, and S. viarum. The seeds possessed fully developed embryos at the time of dispersal and the seed coats readily absorbed water. We investigated germination characteristics under various temperatures, cold stratification periods, and gibberellic acid (GA₃) concentrations. Germination percentage of S. lyratum and S. japonense was significantly higher under cold stratification (≥62.0% after 12 weeks at 5 °C) or GA₃ treatment (≥77.0% at 1000 mg·L⁻¹) than for temperature treatment alone (≤3.0% at 25/15 °C), indicating non-deep physiological dormancy (PD). Seeds of S. nigrum, S. americanum, and S. viarum exhibited non-deep PD with conditional dormancy and higher germination efficiencies through GA₃ 1000 mg·L⁻¹ than under temperature treatment alone (25/15 °C). Seeds of S. sarrachoides were classified as non-dormant. These findings may contribute to the practical mass propagation of Solanum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Agronomic Treatment on Seed Germination and Dormancy: 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 1429 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enhanced Formation and Stability of Water-Stable Aggregates in Rhizosphere Soil over Bulk Soil with Exopolysaccharide from Rhizobium tropici: Insights from a Pot Study

by Liang Xiao, Xinyun Xie, Steve L. Larson, John H. Ballard, Qinku Zhang, Jing Nie, Huimin Zhang and Fengxiang X. Han

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2653; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112653 - 19 Nov 2025

Viewed by 695

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of exopolysaccharide (EPS) addition on the formation and stability of water-stable aggregates in rhizosphere and bulk soils. A pot experiment was conducted using soils treated with EPS concentrations of 0.00‰, 0.25‰, 0.50‰, and 1.00‰. Soil aggregates were fractionated [...] Read more.

This study investigated the effects of exopolysaccharide (EPS) addition on the formation and stability of water-stable aggregates in rhizosphere and bulk soils. A pot experiment was conducted using soils treated with EPS concentrations of 0.00‰, 0.25‰, 0.50‰, and 1.00‰. Soil aggregates were fractionated into four fractions, namely >2000 μm, 250–2000 μm, 53–250 μm, and <53 μm, and their stability was evaluated using mean weight diameter (MWD), geometric mean diameter (GMD), and fractal dimension (D). Results showed that EPS addition significantly increased the proportions of larger and macro aggregates (>2000 μm and 250–2000 μm) while reducing smaller particles (<53 μm), with rhizosphere soil exhibiting a stronger response compared to bulk soil. Aggregate stability indices (MWD and GMD) improved consistently with increasing EPS concentrations, while D decreased, indicating enhanced aggregates stability. Moderate EPS concentrations (0.25‰ and 0.50‰) were most effective in improving aggregate formation and stability and moderately enhanced plant biomass, particularly root biomass. Pearson correlation analysis revealed that macro-aggregate fractions (>2000 μm and 250–2000 μm) were positively correlated with each other but showed weak or non-significant relationships with plant biomass parameters. In particular, the 250–2000 μm fraction exhibited a weak negative correlation with total biomass (r = −0.37, p ≤ 0.05). These findings highlight the potential of moderate EPS concentrations to enhance soil structure and stability, particularly in rhizosphere soils, providing insights into its application for sustainable soil management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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12 pages, 578 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Organic Fertilization vs. the Quality of Basil Raw Material

by Katarzyna Dzida, Karolina Pitura and Anna Król

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2656; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112656 - 19 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 734

Abstract

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the most widely cultivated herbal plants, valued in the food and pharmaceutical industries for its abundance of bioactive compounds, and also as an ornamental plant. The contents of its bioactive compounds are strongly influenced by [...] Read more.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the most widely cultivated herbal plants, valued in the food and pharmaceutical industries for its abundance of bioactive compounds, and also as an ornamental plant. The contents of its bioactive compounds are strongly influenced by both environmental and anthropogenic factors, among which fertilization plays a key role. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different application doses (5, 10, 15, and 20 g·dm⁻³ of substrate) of an organic fertilizer (granulated cattle manure) on the fresh biomass yield and quality of two basil varieties: lemon basil and cinnamon basil. The applied manure doses significantly affected the fresh biomass yield of O. basilicum L. Both basil variety and fertilizer dose were found to determine the content of L-ascorbic acid and nitrates in the plants. Increasing manure doses resulted in higher contents of N, P, and K, as well as decreased contents of Ca and Mg in plants of both varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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22 pages, 2800 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Biostimulants as a Tool for Mitigating Water Deficit Stress in Strawberry Cultivation

by Júlia Letícia Cassel, Laura Valentina Caus Maldaner, Mateus Possebon Bortoluzzi, Luciane Maria Colla, Francisco Wilson Reichert Junior, Pedro Palencia and José Luís Trevizan Chiomento

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2643; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112643 - 18 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1128

Abstract

This bibliometric review analyzed research published between 2020 and 2025 addressing water stress in strawberry plants and evidenced the use of biostimulants as a promising tool in mitigating this stress. Water requirement of strawberry plants varies according to the agroecosystem of cultivation and [...] Read more.

This bibliometric review analyzed research published between 2020 and 2025 addressing water stress in strawberry plants and evidenced the use of biostimulants as a promising tool in mitigating this stress. Water requirement of strawberry plants varies according to the agroecosystem of cultivation and genotype used to establish the crop. Strawberry plants develop large leaves with a high water content and stomata, which results in high transpiration rates. Under water deficit, the photosynthetic capacity of the plant is reduced and the water content in the leaves is lower. Additionally, molecules such as proline, catalase, and peroxidase are produced, indicating enzymatic oxidative stress. Conversely, the fruit quality is positively influenced when the plant suffers water restrictions (up to 75% of the pot/field capacity). The use of biostimulants represents a potential biotool to mitigate water deficit in strawberry plants, such as the application of organic acids, plant extracts, seaweed, bacteria, and fungi. The use of these products in situations of water deficit or aiming at a reduction in water consumption is still a topic of research gaining attention. Therefore, the application of biostimulants combined with irrigation management with lower water consumption corroborates the search for more productive and sustainable agri-food systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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25 pages, 2184 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Homogalacturonan Methylesterification and Cell Wall Regulation: Integrating Biochemistry, Mechanics, and Developmental Signaling for Crop Improvement

by Duoduo Wang, Isabel B. Ortega-Salazar and Barbara Blanco-Ulate

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2641; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112641 - 18 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1117

Abstract

Homogalacturonan (HG) methylesterification is a key determinant of plant cell wall (CW) structure and function, shaping growth, morphogenesis, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. This review highlights recent advances in the regulation of homogalacturonan (HG) methylesterification, focusing on the coordinated roles of [...] Read more.

Homogalacturonan (HG) methylesterification is a key determinant of plant cell wall (CW) structure and function, shaping growth, morphogenesis, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. This review highlights recent advances in the regulation of homogalacturonan (HG) methylesterification, focusing on the coordinated roles of pectin methylesterases (PMEs), pectin methylesterase inhibitors (PMEIs), transcription factors (TFs), and hormonal signals. We examine how these regulators interact within the CW microenvironment to modulate elasticity, porosity, and remodeling dynamics. Insights from immunolocalization and biomechanical studies reveal the spatiotemporal patterning of HG de-esterification and its integration with developmental and stress-adaptive signaling. Beyond basic biology, HG methylesterification dynamics directly influence traits such as fruit firmness, pathogen resistance, and stress tolerance, positioning HG methylesterification-related genes as promising targets for molecular breeding and biotechnological interventions. By integrating mechanistic understanding with genomic and phenotypic selection approaches, breeders can precisely tailor CW properties to enhance crop resilience and quality. A comprehensive view of HG methylesterification—from enzymatic control to mechanical feedback—offers a conceptual and practical framework for guiding crop improvement and sustainable agricultural practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanisms and Signaling Pathways of Crop Tolerance Under Stressful Conditions)

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20 pages, 2470 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Novel Resistance Determinants from Cucumber PI 197085 Against Pseudoperonospora cubensis

by Wojciech Szczechura, Urszula Kłosińska, Marzena Nowakowska, Katarzyna Nowak, Marcin Nowicki, Elżbieta U. Kozik and Mirosław Tyrka

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2633; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112633 - 17 Nov 2025

Viewed by 777

Abstract

Downy mildew, caused by Pseudoperonospora cubensis, remains a major constraint to cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) production worldwide. The erosion of resistance conferred by the historic dm-1 gene has heightened the quest for new and enduring sources of resistance. PI 197085, a [...] Read more.

Downy mildew, caused by Pseudoperonospora cubensis, remains a major constraint to cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) production worldwide. The erosion of resistance conferred by the historic dm-1 gene has heightened the quest for new and enduring sources of resistance. PI 197085, a resistant accession identified under Central European field conditions, remains largely genetically unexplored. In this study, an evenly saturated genetic linkage map was developed using an F₂ population derived from PI 197085 × PI 175695, which comprised 164 polymorphic markers spanning all seven chromosomes. Composite interval mapping revealed five quantitative trait loci (QTLs) linked to resistance against P. cubensis, distributed across chromosomes 2, 3, 4, and 5. Candidate gene analysis within the QTL intervals identified clusters of receptor-like kinases, transcription factors, and redox-related enzymes, suggesting that resistance in PI 197085 is polygenic and regulator-rich. The improved resolution of the linkage map enabled more precise localization of resistance loci and uncovered novel genomic regions that were not previously detected in this population. These findings provide a foundation for marker-assisted selection and fine-mapping efforts aimed at developing cucumber cultivars with the robust and durable resistance to P. cubensis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shaping the Future of Plant Breeding: Harnessing Phenomic and Genomic Insights for Disease Resistance)

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15 pages, 2026 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Variability of Root and Shoot Traits Under PEG-Induced Drought Stress at an Early Vegetative Growth Stage of Maize

by Miroslav Bukan, Snježana Kereša, Ivan Pejić, Ana Lovrić and Hrvoje Šarčević

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2624; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112624 - 15 Nov 2025

Viewed by 701

Abstract

The development of maize varieties with enhanced tolerance to drought stress has become a high-priority goal for maize breeding programs worldwide. In order to assess the variability of root and shoot traits in response to drought at an early vegetative stage, a set [...] Read more.

The development of maize varieties with enhanced tolerance to drought stress has become a high-priority goal for maize breeding programs worldwide. In order to assess the variability of root and shoot traits in response to drought at an early vegetative stage, a set of 32 maize single-cross hybrids was grown under polyethylene glycol 8000-induced drought stress and well-watered control treatments. Drought stress significantly reduced hybrid seedling root and shoot lengths (RL and SL) as well as root and shoot fresh weights (RFW and SFW), while an increase in seedling root and shoot dry matter (RDM and SDM) and root fresh weight-to-shoot fresh weight ratio (RFW/SFW) was observed. The high heritability estimates for the four directly and easily measured traits, namely, RL, SL, RFW, and SFW (0.83, 0.83, 0.74, and 0.74, respectively), and medium-to-very-strong positive correlations among these traits under drought conditions indicate their applicability for the assessment of maize drought tolerance at the seedling stage and may represent a practical contribution to maize breeding programs for improved drought tolerance. Among the studied hybrids, hybrids 30, 3, and 23 were characterized by the largest RL under drought conditions and small relative change in RL between control and drought treatments. Hybrid 30 also showed one of the smallest relative reductions in SL, RFW, and SFW between the two treatments, while hybrids 3 and 23 were among those which exhibited the highest relative RL/SL and RFW/SFW increase between the two treatments, which supports their potential as parental lines in drought-tolerant breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Basis of Crop Selection and Evolution)

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25 pages, 1717 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fungicide Preharvest Application Strategies and Their Effects on Crop Yield, Quality, and Sprouting of Dried Onion Bulbs

by Ana Avilés-Quezada, Martín Fuentes-López, Alberto Guirao, Ander Solana-Guilabert, Huertas M. Díaz-Mula, Juan M. Valverde, María E. García-Pastor and Domingo Martínez-Romero

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2616; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112616 - 14 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1267

Abstract

Postharvest losses in onion (Allium cepa L.) bulbs constitute a major economic challenge globally, primarily driven by fungal pathogens and premature sprouting during long-term storage. Addressing these issues with effective preharvest strategies is critical for market stability and supply chain integrity. This [...] Read more.

Postharvest losses in onion (Allium cepa L.) bulbs constitute a major economic challenge globally, primarily driven by fungal pathogens and premature sprouting during long-term storage. Addressing these issues with effective preharvest strategies is critical for market stability and supply chain integrity. This study evaluated the effects of two preharvest fungicide strategies, i.e., T1 (dimethomorph + pyraclostrobin) and T2 (metalaxyl + mancozeb + copper oxychloride), on the crop yield, postharvest quality, and sprouting behavior of dried onion bulbs. Both treatments significantly reduced the incidence of foliar disease in the field and improved the crop yield of commercial bulbs compared to the control in two consecutive seasons. T1 achieved the highest yield (~76 and 88 t ha⁻¹ in ‘Mata Hari’ and ’Recas’ onions). During storage at 20 °C for 84 days, in the ‘Mata Hari’ cultivar, the T1 bulbs exhibited the lowest weight loss and respiration rate, the lowest sprouting incidence (1%), and superior firmness retention and higher total soluble solids. In contrast, control bulbs exhibited accelerated weight loss and tissue degradation, with up to 95% sprouting. Pyruvic acid content, an indicator of pungency, was highest in T1 bulbs and increased significantly in sprouted controls, likely due to internal enzymatic activation and tissue senescence. The fungicides indirectly delayed dormancy release by delaying sprouting and internal stem axis formation. Overall, T1 was the most effective strategy for preserving onion quality during storage without using synthetic sprout inhibitors. These findings support the integration of specific fungicide programs into preharvest management to improve onion storability, reduce postharvest losses, and maintain commercial value in intermediate-dormancy dried onion cultivars, such as ‘Mata Hari’. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Disease Control: Pesticide Resistance Management and Eco-Friendly Alternatives)

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13 pages, 513 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Stale Seedbed and Intercropping for Agroecological Weed Management in Vetch (Vicia sativa L.) in the Context of the ONE GREEN Project

by Ioannis Gazoulis, Dimitra Petraki, Nikolaos Antonopoulos, Helen Kalorizou, Panagiotis Kanatas and Ilias Travlos

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2617; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112617 - 14 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 713

Abstract

Agroecological weed management is important for agriculture’s shift toward sustainability. This study evaluated stale seedbed and intercropping combinations for weed management in vetch (Vicia sativa L.) cultivation in Greece during the 2023–2024 and 2024–2025 growing seasons. A Randomized Complete Block Design was [...] Read more.

Agroecological weed management is important for agriculture’s shift toward sustainability. This study evaluated stale seedbed and intercropping combinations for weed management in vetch (Vicia sativa L.) cultivation in Greece during the 2023–2024 and 2024–2025 growing seasons. A Randomized Complete Block Design was established using a split-plot arrangement. Two weed management practices served as the main plots: untreated control (CON) and stale seedbed (SSB). Four intercropping methods formed the subplots: vetch monocropping (VM), vetch–barley mixed intercropping (VBMXIC), vetch–barley row intercropping (VBROWIC), and vetch–barley relay intercropping (VBRELIC). The interaction between weed management and intercropping influenced weed NDVI (p < 0.001), weed biomass, and vetch NDVI (p < 0.01). Weed NDVI and biomass were highest for CON × VM, CON × VBMXIC, CON × VBROWIC, and CON × VBRELIC interactions. Vetch NDVI was highest (0.71) for SSB × VM. Grain yield was affected by growing season (p < 0.05), weed management (p < 0.001), and intercropping (p < 0.001). SSB resulted in a 42% higher yield compared to CON. VBRELIC and increased yields by 7%, 22%, and 29% compared to VBROWIC, VM, and VBMXIC, respectively. Further research is needed to evaluate additional agroecological weed management practices in more crops and environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Highlighting and Enhancing Ecosystem Services of Crops and Weeds in Agroecosystems)

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14 pages, 1412 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quinoa Whole Plant: A Promising Nutrient-Rich Alternative Forage in the U.S. Midwest

by Safiullah Pathan, Grato Ndunguru, Amlan K. Patra, Addissu Ayele, Fatema Tuj Johora and Muhammad Arifuzzaman

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2618; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112618 - 14 Nov 2025

Viewed by 965

Abstract

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is a nutrient-rich multipurpose crop. Its grains are used as a cereal, green leaves as a vegetable for humans, and the whole green plant as an alternate forage for livestock. Recently, whole-plant quinoa forage has been evaluated in [...] Read more.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is a nutrient-rich multipurpose crop. Its grains are used as a cereal, green leaves as a vegetable for humans, and the whole green plant as an alternate forage for livestock. Recently, whole-plant quinoa forage has been evaluated in several countries in Asia and Europe for its potential use as an alternative forage for livestock; however, this has not been performed in the United States. We investigated forage yield and related agronomic traits, nutritional composition, and feed quality-related traits in 60-day-old quinoa whole plants of four quinoa lines over a two-year period. The goal was to evaluate the feasibility of quinoa forage production in Missouri, a drought-prone midwestern state of the USA. Morphological traits (height and fresh and dry weight per plant), chemical composition (fiber contents), and nutritive quality (digestible nutrient contents) of forages were affected by quinoa genotype and year of planting. The crude protein content of quinoa forage averaged 16.23% and fiber 22.08%, which was similar to the values reported in Asia and Europe, but was slightly lower than that of alfalfa. Calcium (1.26%) and phosphorus (0.47% dry weight) were significantly higher than those reported in published quinoa forage results and are comparable to those in published alfalfa minerals. Lysine (0.98%) and methionine (0.25%) were higher than the published results for quinoa and alfalfa. Neutral detergent fiber (34.10%) and acid detergent fiber (25.01%) were lower than those of alfalfa, indicating better digestibility of the quinoa forage. The calculated digestible dry matter (69.40%), dry matter intake (3.56%), relative food value (192%), and total digestible nutrient (70.33%) were higher than those of alfalfa and comparable with published results for quinoa forage. Our preliminary results indicate that the quinoa lines evaluated in this study have excellent potential to be used as a non-traditional alternative forage, especially in environmentally stressed areas where the production of other forage crops is limited. Further research should explore the full multipurpose benefits of quinoa, including its use as grains, leafy green, and whole-plant forage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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17 pages, 1490 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Agroecological Soil Management of an Organic Apple Orchard: Impact of Flowering Living Mulches on Soil Nutrients and Bacterial Activity Indices

by Ewa Maria Furmanczyk and Eligio Malusà

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2612; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112612 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 640

Abstract

The introduction of living mulches into an orchard can be considered an agroecological practice that can provide several ecosystem services related to integrated crop protection, also in relation to the impact on soil microbiome. In this study, the introduction in an organic apple [...] Read more.

The introduction of living mulches into an orchard can be considered an agroecological practice that can provide several ecosystem services related to integrated crop protection, also in relation to the impact on soil microbiome. In this study, the introduction in an organic apple orchard of two plant mixtures designed as multifunctional living mulches to reduce weed competition and increase shelter for beneficial arthropods was evaluated in relation to their impact on soil nutrient content and bacterial activity indices. One mixture was composed of Trifolium repens (20%) and Festuca ovina (80%), the second made of 40 different plant species including legumes, flowering species and grasses. Both living mulches increased N-nitrate levels in spring, and the two-component plant mixture was also able to improve P and K levels in soil at the same time, in comparison to the natural cover (control). The two mixtures induced an increase in bacterial activity in the beginning (40 plant species mix) or middle of the growing season (two-component plant mix), without major effects on bacterial biodiversity at the phyla level, showing a high share of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteriota among treatments. Nevertheless, both plant mixtures modified the phenotypic profile of the bacterial population, measured with the Biolog method, of different classes of C sources including carbohydrates, amino acids and carboxylic acid. The results are pointing to possible benefits of the practice on soil microbial activity, which will have to be confirmed by longer studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Aspects as a Basis for Future Pest Integrated Management—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 5287 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

How to Minimize the Impact of Biochar on Soil Salinity in Drylands? Lessons from a Data Synthesis

by Haiyang Yu, Biyun Feng, Yuanyuan Dong, Xinyue Song, Xiaojing Sun, Xiaoyue Song, Xiaojing Li, Guomei Guo, Dezhi Bai and Chao Kong

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2609; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112609 - 13 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 843

Abstract

Biochar application in dry regions holds promise for improving soil properties, but its impact on soil salinity remains controversial. To evaluate the short-term effect of biochar on soil salinity under dry conditions, we conducted a meta-analysis of 149 observations from 40 peer-reviewed publications [...] Read more.

Biochar application in dry regions holds promise for improving soil properties, but its impact on soil salinity remains controversial. To evaluate the short-term effect of biochar on soil salinity under dry conditions, we conducted a meta-analysis of 149 observations from 40 peer-reviewed publications conducted in Mediterranean, arid, and semi-arid climates, or under simulated dry/saline conditions. Overall, biochar addition significantly increased soil electrical conductivity (EC) by 34.63% compared to controls. However, this effect was highly dependent on pedoclimatic conditions, soil pH, biochar feedstock types, pH and EC, irrigation practices, and management factors. The most substantial increases in salinity occurred when applying biochar produced from high-ash feedstocks (e.g., seafood shell powder, peanut shell), at high application rates (>20 t ha⁻¹), to soils with low initial organic carbon content, or in the absence of a leaching fraction. In contrast, the use of biochar made from low-ash ligneous materials at rates ≤ 20 t ha⁻¹ did not significantly increase soil EC. Random forest analysis identified biochar EC, initial soil EC, and biochar pH as the most influential factors. We conclude that the risk of biochar-induced salinization in drylands can be effectively minimized by selecting appropriate lower-EC biochar, applying it at moderate application rates, and implementing irrigation with a leaching fraction. These findings provide critical guidelines for the sustainable implementation of biochar technology in water-scarce environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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19 pages, 930 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Improving Pollination Efficiency in Greenhouse Strawberries Through Honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) Feeding Management

by Heeji Kim, Minwoong Son, Dong Hee Lee, Sung Hyun Min, Bo-Sun Park, Kyu-Won Kwak, Su Jin Lee, Su-Bae Kim, Sung-Kook Kim, Young-Bo Lee and Kyeong Yong Lee

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2608; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112608 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1003

Abstract

Stable pollination by honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) is essential for the reliable production of strawberries cultivated in winter greenhouses in Korea. Few studies focused on the management of pollination hives within greenhouses during flowering. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effects [...] Read more.

Stable pollination by honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) is essential for the reliable production of strawberries cultivated in winter greenhouses in Korea. Few studies focused on the management of pollination hives within greenhouses during flowering. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effects of nutritional feed management by supplementing pollen patties and sugar solution on the pollination efficiency and colony longevity of honeybees under greenhouse conditions. In March, the number of foraging bees in the treatment group was 1.94 times higher than that in the control group. The number of bees inside the hive was approximately 2000 greater in February and approximately 2925 greater in March in the treatment group than in the control group. The pollen patties supplemented one time were completely consumed after 53 days, whereas 50% of the patties remained even after 70 days when supplemented three times. The commercial fruit set rate was 5.9% higher, and the fruit weight was significantly heavier, by 1.7 g, in the treatment group than in the control group, although other quality parameters showed no significant differences. Additionally, bee activity was approximately 2.2 times higher in the treatment group with sugar syrup supplementation than in the control group, but the fruit set rate or quality did not significantly differ between the two groups. These findings indicate that the feed management of honeybees during winter greenhouse strawberry cultivation is essential for stable pollination. Proper nutritional supplementation not only enhances bee activity and colony longevity but also improves strawberry productivity, leading to an estimated additional profit of approximately KRW 2.29 million (≈USD 1700) per 0.1 ha. This demonstrates that nutritional management of pollination hives provides both biological and economic benefits for greenhouse strawberry growers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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44 pages, 2594 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Review and Assessment of Crop-Related Digital Tools for Agroecology

by Evangelos Anastasiou, Aikaterini Kasimati, George Papadopoulos, Anna Vatsanidou, Marilena Gemtou, Jochen Kantelhardt, Andreas Gabriel, Friederike Schwierz, Custodio Efraim Matavel, Andreas Meyer-Aurich, Elias Maritan, Karl Behrendt, Alma Moroder, Sonoko Dorothea Bellingrath-Kimura, Søren Marcus Pedersen, Andrea Landi, Liisa Pesonen, Junia Rojic, Minkyeong Kim, Heiner Denzer and Spyros Fountas Show full author list Hide full author list

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2600; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112600 - 12 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2876

Abstract

The use of digital tools in agroecological crop production can help mitigate current farming challenges such as labour shortage and climate change. The aim of this study was to map digital tools used in crop production, assess their impacts across economic, environmental, and [...] Read more.

The use of digital tools in agroecological crop production can help mitigate current farming challenges such as labour shortage and climate change. The aim of this study was to map digital tools used in crop production, assess their impacts across economic, environmental, and social dimensions, and determine their potential as enablers of agroecology. A systematic search and screening process, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses methodology, identified 453 relevant studies. The results showed that most digital tools are applied for crop monitoring (83.4%), with unmanned aerial vehicles (37.7%) and camera sensors (75.2% combined) being the most frequently used technologies. Farm Management Information Systems (57.6%) and Decision Support Systems (25.2%) dominated the tool categories, while platforms for market access, social networking, and collaborative learning were rare. Most tools addressed the first tier of agroecology, which refers to input reduction, highlighting a strong focus on efficiency improvements rather than systemic redesign. Although digital tools demonstrated positive contributions to social, environmental, and economic dimensions, studies concentrated mainly on economic benefits. Future research should investigate the potential role of digital technologies in advancing higher tiers of agroecology, emphasising participatory design, agroecosystem services, and broader coverage of the agricultural value chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Farming: Advancing Techniques for High-Value Crops)

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30 pages, 2372 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Towards Circular Biobased Materials: Enhancing Unfired Adobe with Grape Pomace—A Comprehensive Analysis

by Monica C. M. Parlato, Andrea Pezzuolo, Anna Perbellini, Edoardo Piana and Lorenzo Guerrini

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2605; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112605 - 12 Nov 2025

Viewed by 794

Abstract

This research pioneers the incorporation of grape pomace (GP) as a sustainable additive in unfired adobe construction materials, establishing a novel circular pathway that valorises agro-waste in zero-emission, low-energy building components. Five mix designs were developed with GP contents of 0%, 2.5%, 5%, [...] Read more.

This research pioneers the incorporation of grape pomace (GP) as a sustainable additive in unfired adobe construction materials, establishing a novel circular pathway that valorises agro-waste in zero-emission, low-energy building components. Five mix designs were developed with GP contents of 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% by weight, using a soil matrix composed of 15% clay, 25% silt, and 60% sand with a 20% water content. Comprehensive characterization included physical properties, mechanical performance, thermal behavior, acoustic properties, and durability assessment. The incorporation of GP demonstrated dose-dependent effects on all measured properties. Bulk density decreased linearly from 1951 kg/m³ (0%GP) to 1595 kg/m³ (10%GP), representing an 18.3% reduction. Optimal mechanical performance was achieved at a 2.5–5% GP content, with compressive strength ranging from 1.51–1.64 MPa and flexural strength of 0.56–0.80 MPa, while higher GP contents resulted in significant strength reductions. Thermal conductivity improved substantially, decreasing from 0.99 to 0.25 W/Mk (66% RH) with increasing GP content, indicating enhanced insulation properties. The sound insulation performance showed a single-value sound reduction index (Rw) of 41–43 dB for all compositions, making them suitable for facade applications. Statistical analysis revealed significant correlations between GP content and material properties. The results indicate an optimal GP content of around 5%, which balances mechanical integrity, thermal performance, and durability while providing environmental benefits through the valorization of agro-waste. This research offers a sustainable approach for producing low-energy, eco-friendly building materials by incorporating grape pomace into unfired adobe, promoting waste valorization and improved thermal and acoustical insulation for green construction. Further research is needed to assess durability performance, standardize production methods, and evaluate large-scale implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Cropping Systems and Biomasses for Energy and Biorefinery Applications)

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15 pages, 1250 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Preharvest Prohexadione-Ca Treatment Improves Fruit Set and Mechanical Properties in Cv. ‘Tip Top’ Sweet Cherries

by Alice Varaldo and Giovanna Giacalone

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2596; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112596 - 11 Nov 2025

Viewed by 890

Abstract

Sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) cultivation is rapidly expanding in Northern Italy, where excessive vegetative vigor often limits fruit set and quality. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of Prohexadione-calcium (Pro-Ca) on the vegetative growth, productivity, and fruit quality of cv. [...] Read more.

Sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) cultivation is rapidly expanding in Northern Italy, where excessive vegetative vigor often limits fruit set and quality. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of Prohexadione-calcium (Pro-Ca) on the vegetative growth, productivity, and fruit quality of cv. ‘Tip Top’ sweet cherries grafted onto Gisela 6 and MaxMa 14 rootstocks. The growth regulator was applied twice between the flower bud and petal fall stages. Pro-Ca significantly reduced vigor and increased the fruit setting by 10%, resulting in an yield average of +3 kg per plant. Also preharvest treatment increased average cherry size compared with the control, particularly in plants grafted onto Gisela 6. Moreover, Pro-Ca-treated fruits exhibited a +20% red overcolor extension of the skin, improved skin firmness (+12%), and led to higher nutraceutical properties. In conclusion, Pro-Ca improved plant yield and fruit quality in ‘Tip Top’ sweet cherry, likely through the combined effects on hormonal balance, assimilate allocation, and canopy light distribution, supporting its potential as a valuable growth regulator in high-density sweet cherry orchards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Mechanisms of Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Fruits)

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18 pages, 569 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genomic Confirmation of Resistance Genes for Blast, Bacterial Leaf Blight, Rice Tungro Spherical Virus, and Brown Planthopper in Tropically Adapted Temperate Japonica Rice Varieties

by Myrish Alvarez Pacleb, Seongkyeong Lee, Sherry Lou Hechanova, Thelma Padolina, Lenie Pautin, Jesson Del-Amen, Dong-Soo Park, Il-Ryong Choi, Sung-Ryul Kim, Dongjin Shin and Jung-Pil Suh

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2585; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112585 - 10 Nov 2025

Viewed by 711

Abstract

The Rural Development Administration (RDA) of the Republic of Korea, in collaboration with International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), developed six temperate japonica rice varieties—MS11, Japonica 1, 2, 6, 7, and Cordillera 4—which were officially approved for release in tropical environments. These varieties offer [...] Read more.

The Rural Development Administration (RDA) of the Republic of Korea, in collaboration with International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), developed six temperate japonica rice varieties—MS11, Japonica 1, 2, 6, 7, and Cordillera 4—which were officially approved for release in tropical environments. These varieties offer improved eating quality, enhanced lodging resistance, and increased market value. Although initial evaluations indicated that the varieties were resistant to moderately resistant to major biotic stresses, recent field trials revealed a gradual increase in susceptibility over time. To address this, we conducted comprehensive evaluations of these varieties against rice blast under both greenhouse and field conditions and assessed their responses to bacterial leaf blight (BLB), rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV), and brown planthopper (BPH) under controlled environments. Additionally, whole-genome sequencing was employed to confirm the presence of known resistance alleles. Our findings revealed variable resistance profiles across the six varieties. Japonica 1 exhibited the most stable resistance to blast, supported by the presence of the Pi5 allele. Japonica 7 showed strong resistance to key BLB isolates and moderate resistance to a broader range of Xoo races, supported by the resistant Xa25/OsSWEET13 haplotype. In addition, Japonica 7, along with Japonica 6, carried the tsv1 gene for RTSV resistance. However, none of the six varieties possessed other major resistance genes for BPH. These results highlight the urgent need to introgress durable resistance genes into tropical japonica rice to enhance resilience and broaden the spectrum of biotic stress resistance—critical traits for sustainable rice production in tropical environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Plant Breeding, Genetics and Genomics, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 1020 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Greenhouse Evaluation of the Agronomic Potential of Urban Wastewater-Based Fertilizers: Sewage Sludge and Struvite for Lettuce Production in Sandy Soil

by Andreia F. Santos, Gonçalo Carreira, Mariana Mota, Licínio M. Gando-Ferreira, Margarida J. Quina and Paula Alvarenga

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2589; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112589 - 10 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 569

Abstract

Environmental impacts of urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can be reduced by recovering nutrients and organic matter (OM) from their streams for agricultural use, decreasing dependence on conventional fertilizers. This study evaluated dehydrated sewage sludge (SS) as an organic amendment and the partial [...] Read more.

Environmental impacts of urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can be reduced by recovering nutrients and organic matter (OM) from their streams for agricultural use, decreasing dependence on conventional fertilizers. This study evaluated dehydrated sewage sludge (SS) as an organic amendment and the partial replacement of mineral P fertilizers in lettuce cultivation. Struvite, a byproduct of WWTPs, was also investigated as a sustainable P source. A 43-day greenhouse pot experiment assessed SS (12 t/ha) and struvite (at two P rates: 30 and 60 kg P₂O₅/ha), both alone and combined. SS significantly increased soil OM (p < 0.001), though long-term applications would be required to enhance this effect. The highest struvite rate (60 kg P₂O₅/ha) yielded the greatest extractable soil-P levels (150 ± 8.1 mg P₂O₅/kg), while its combination with SS further increased extractable P (>250 mg P₂O₅/kg), indicating a stable soil P pool. The highest plant dry biomass (8.9 ± 1.1 g, p < 0.05) also occurred under the highest struvite dosage. Complementary effects between SS and struvite were observed in foliar K, Ca, Mg, and S contents, although no significant interaction between both was found for P content. Adequate foliar P levels (0.40–0.52%) were achieved only in treatments containing SS, indicating its essential role in improving plant P nutrition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Fertilizers and Soil Health: Innovations for Nutrient Recycling and Environmental Protection)

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16 pages, 2935 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Responses of Photosynthetic Activity in Flag Leaves and Spikes as well as Seed Development of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to Artificial Shading

by Kieun Song, Sesil Hong and Sangin Shim

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2577; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112577 - 9 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The accumulation of photoassimilates in the sinks during the grain filling stage is affected by the conditions of the various source organs. This study was conducted to investigate changes in various source and sink organs when the flag leaves and spikes were shaded [...] Read more.

The accumulation of photoassimilates in the sinks during the grain filling stage is affected by the conditions of the various source organs. This study was conducted to investigate changes in various source and sink organs when the flag leaves and spikes were shaded from heading to harvest in wheat. Shading the flag leaves increased chlorophyll content and chlorophyll fluorescence in the uppermost leaves by 34.9% and 0.3% in 2022 and 75.3% and 3.3% in 2023, respectively, maintaining a relatively high photosynthetic rate from heading to the mid-grain filling stage. However, shading the spikes had a more substantial negative impact on spike growth than the flag leaf shading. On the other hand, the uppermost leaves continued to serve as a source more actively even when the flag leaves were shaded, implying a compensating effect. At 35 days after treatment (DAT), the relative water content (RWC) of the spike in the spike shading (SS) treatment was 19.4% and 49.7% higher than that of the control in 2022 and 2023, respectively. However, grain weight in the SS treatment decreased by 39.7% in 2022 and 5.3% in 2023 compared with the control. In the flag leaf shading (FS) treatment, grain weight declined by 3.5% and 6.2% in 2022 and 2023, respectively. These results indicate that the reduction in grain weight due to shading was less pronounced in the SS treatment than in the FS and combined flag leaf and spike shading (FSS) treatments. The results suggest that spikes play a buffering role when assimilate-transport functions decline in the source organs. Our results provide a better understanding of the architectural properties, including flag leaf, spike, and the uppermost leaf, for photosynthetic contribution to grain filling in wheat. Also, identifying target characteristics for improving photosynthetic source organs will be valuable for developing wheat varieties with high yield stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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32 pages, 11442 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Microbial Inoculation Differentially Affected the Performance of Field-Grown Young Monastrell Grapevines Under Semiarid Conditions, Depending on the Rootstock

by Pascual Romero, Pablo Botía, Elisa I. Morote, Asunción Morte and Josefa M. Navarro

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2570; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112570 - 7 Nov 2025

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Abstract

A trial was conducted from 2017 to 2023 in a 0.2 ha irrigated vineyard located in a semiarid area of southeastern Spain, using field-grown young vines (0–6 years old) of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Monastrell grafted onto three rootstocks: 140Ru, 161-49C, and 110R. [...] Read more.

A trial was conducted from 2017 to 2023 in a 0.2 ha irrigated vineyard located in a semiarid area of southeastern Spain, using field-grown young vines (0–6 years old) of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Monastrell grafted onto three rootstocks: 140Ru, 161-49C, and 110R. The main objective was to evaluate the effect of early co-inoculation in the field using commercial microbial inoculants containing arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), and a mycorrhizal helper bacterium (MHB) on young vine performance. We assessed the impact of microbial inoculation and its interaction with the rootstock on soil environment, plant water relations, leaf gas exchange, plant nutrition, growth, yield, and berry quality. Mycorrhizal colonization rates in root samples showed similar values in inoculated and non-inoculated vines across all of the rootstocks; however, inoculated vines grafted onto 140Ru showed significantly higher concentrations of total glomalin in the soil compared to their non-inoculated counterparts. Microbial inoculation altered the soil environment, leading to increased oxygen diffusion rate (161-49C), organic matter decomposition rate (140Ru), soil CO₂ flux (110R, 140Ru), and soil H₂O flux (110R) values in the rhizosphere of inoculated vines. Additionally, inoculated vines grafted onto 140Ru and 161-49C exhibited improved vegetative and reproductive development, enhancing productive water use efficiency (WUE_yield), whereas inoculated vines on 110R showed poorer soil–plant water relations, growth, yield, and WUE_yield compared to non-inoculated vines. Microbial inoculation also led to a significant decrease in must phenolic content, particularly in 140Ru, unlike 110R and 161-49C. These findings indicate that early microbial inoculation had a rootstock-dependent impact on the performance of young grapevines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant–Microbiota Interactions Under Abiotic Stress)

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18 pages, 2357 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Biochar and Humus Amendments and Early-Season Insect Netting on Soil Properties, Crop Yield, and Pest Management in Organic Vegetable Production in Maine

by Robert P. Larkin

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2567; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112567 - 7 Nov 2025

Viewed by 627

Abstract

Effective implementation and optimization of organic amendments and other management practices is essential for sustainable organic vegetable production, yet needed information is lacking on the effects and benefits of different organic matter amendments and pest management approaches under Northeastern USA production conditions. The [...] Read more.

Effective implementation and optimization of organic amendments and other management practices is essential for sustainable organic vegetable production, yet needed information is lacking on the effects and benefits of different organic matter amendments and pest management approaches under Northeastern USA production conditions. The impacts of soil amendments of biochar or humus (soluble humate complex) in conjunction with compost, as well as the presence or absence of an early-season insect netting row cover (mesotunnels), were evaluated on soil chemical and biological properties, crop development and yield, and disease and pest issues in organic vegetable production, as represented by legume (green snap bean), cucurbit (green zucchini squash), and amaranth (garden beet) vegetable crops, in a three-year field trial in Maine. Composted cow manure and a commercial organic fertilizer alone were included as controls. All plots were either covered or not covered with a permeable insect netting row cover from the time of planting until flowering. All compost-based amendments increased soil pH; organic matter; microbial activity; crop yields; and K, Mg, and Ca content relative to a fertilizer-only treatment. Biochar amendments further increased soil pH, CEC, and Ca content above those of compost alone and also resulted in the overall highest yields of bean and zucchini but were not significantly greater than with compost amendment alone. Humus amendments did not improve soil characteristics, with some indications of potential reductions in emergence and yield. Insect netting substantially improved yield of zucchini (by 59%) and somewhat improved bean yield (by 11%), in addition to improving plant emergence and reducing insect leaf damage, but it did not reduce powdery mildew on zucchini or provide any significant benefits for beets. These results help define specific management practices to improve organic vegetable production and provide useful information and options for growers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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17 pages, 9035 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Nanostructured Ge-Based Glass Coatings for Sustainable Greenhouse Production: Balancing Light Transmission, Energy Harvesting, and Crop Performance

by Božidar Benko, Krešimir Salamon, Ivana Periša, Sanja Fabek Uher, Sanja Radman, Nevena Opačić and Maja Mičetić

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2559; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112559 - 5 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Greenhouse horticulture is an energy-intensive production system that requires innovative solutions to reduce energy demand without compromising crop yield or quality. Functional greenhouse covers are particularly promising, as they regulate solar radiation while integrating energy-harvesting technologies. In this study, six nanostructured glass coatings [...] Read more.

Greenhouse horticulture is an energy-intensive production system that requires innovative solutions to reduce energy demand without compromising crop yield or quality. Functional greenhouse covers are particularly promising, as they regulate solar radiation while integrating energy-harvesting technologies. In this study, six nanostructured glass coatings incorporating semiconductor-based quantum dots (QDs) and quantum wires (QWs) of Ge and TiN are developed using magnetron sputtering—an industrially scalable technique widely applied in smart window and energy-efficient glass manufacturing. The coatings’ optical properties are characterized in the laboratory, and their agronomic performance is evaluated in greenhouse trials with lamb’s lettuce (Valerianella locusta) and radish (Raphanus sativus). Plant growth, yield, and leaf color (CIELAB parameters) are analyzed in relation to spectral transmission and the daily light integral (DLI). Although uncoated horticultural glass achieves the highest yields, several Ge-QD coatings provide favorable compromises by selectively absorbing non-photosynthetically active radiation (non-PAR) while maintaining acceptable crop performance. These results demonstrate that nanostructured coatings can simultaneously sustain crop growth and enable solar energy conversion, offering a practical pathway toward energy-efficient and climate-smart greenhouse systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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19 pages, 1348 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ionomic Profile and Nutrient Use Efficiency in Sunflower Plants Treated with Plant-Derived Biostimulant Rich in Trigonelline

by María José Izquierdo-Ramos, Santiago Atero-Calvo, Iván Navarro-Morillo, Rafael Pérez-Millán and Begoña Blasco

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2556; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112556 - 4 Nov 2025

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Abstract

In recent decades, the use of biostimulants has increased with the aim of creating an alternative to the use of chemical fertilizers and achieving sustainable agriculture. In this study, sunflower plants (Helianthus annuus L. cv. neoma) were grown under controlled conditions, [...] Read more.

In recent decades, the use of biostimulants has increased with the aim of creating an alternative to the use of chemical fertilizers and achieving sustainable agriculture. In this study, sunflower plants (Helianthus annuus L. cv. neoma) were grown under controlled conditions, and four trigonelline-rich extracts were applied as biostimulants through root and foliar applications. The plant growth parameters, nutrient concentrations, root metabolic activity, and nutrient use efficiency were evaluated. The results showed that the foliar application of extract 4 significantly improved the aboveground biomass and leaf area compared with the control treatments, with values of 44.30 g FW and 680.22 cm², respectively. Moreover, this extract enhanced nutrient accumulation. Meanwhile, foliar application of extract 3 improved macronutrient and micronutrient concentrations, as in the case of phosphorus, which increased by 74.2%, and iron, which increased by 107.3%. Root applications of extracts 3 and 4 increased apparent nutrient recovery, whereas foliar applications of extracts 3 and 4 improved internal nutrient use and productivity indices. Overall, the treatments showed no phytotoxicity and promoted growth, nutrient absorption, and nutrient use efficiency, with the best results observed in foliar treatments with high trigonelline content. These findings indicate that biostimulants with trigonelline-rich extracts could improve crop yield, reduce the use of fertilizer, and contribute to more sustainable agricultural systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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19 pages, 2544 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Zeolite Amendment on Growth and Functional Performance of Turfgrass Species

by Halina Lipińska, Kamila Adamczyk-Mucha, Malwina Michalik-Śnieżek, Ewelina Krukow, Wojciech Lipiński, Ewa Stamirowska-Krzaczek, Rafał Kornas, Maria Zarzecka, Weronika Kamińska and Piotr Karbowniczek

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2554; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112554 - 3 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1068

Abstract

Progressive urbanization and increasing pressure on urban green areas necessitate the search for innovative, ecological, and efficient solutions for lawn management. The shallow root system of grasses, combined with a long vegetation period, makes these plants particularly sensitive to water and nutrient deficiencies. [...] Read more.

Progressive urbanization and increasing pressure on urban green areas necessitate the search for innovative, ecological, and efficient solutions for lawn management. The shallow root system of grasses, combined with a long vegetation period, makes these plants particularly sensitive to water and nutrient deficiencies. One research direction involves the use of zeolites, natural aluminosilicate minerals that, due to their porous structure and high sorption capacity, improve water retention and nutrient availability in soil. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of different zeolite doses on the initial growth and development of two turfgrass species (Lolium perenne, Festuca rubra), as well as on selected lawn performance traits, and to determine the persistence of these effects over time. This research was conducted in 2020–2023 under pot and micro-plot experiment conditions, using mixtures containing the above species. Four levels of zeolite addition to the substrate were applied: 0% (control), 1%, 5%, and 10%. The results clearly confirmed the beneficial effects of zeolite. Its addition improved the germination, growth, and biomass yield of aboveground parts and roots, as well as enhancing turf aesthetics, ground cover, and winter hardiness, while reducing the proportion of dicotyledonous species. The best effects were obtained with the 5% dose, which should be considered optimal—it significantly improved lawn utility parameters with lower material input compared to the 10% dose. Species response varied: L. perenne responded more strongly to improved water–air conditions, whereas F. rubra utilized higher zeolite doses more effectively in root system development. The highest overall effectiveness was recorded with the 10% dose. Zeolite effectiveness was greatest in the first year after application, showing a declining trend in subsequent years, although a positive effect was still observed in the third year of use. The findings support the recommendation of zeolite as an ecological soil additive that enhances lawn quality and durability, particularly in low-fertility soils and under water deficit conditions. Its application may represent an important component of modern green space management technologies in line with the principles of sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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14 pages, 772 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Using Freshwater Cladophora glomerata to Develop Sustainable Farming

by Aurika Ričkienė, Jūratė Karosienė and Sigita Jurkonienė

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2551; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112551 - 3 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1888

Abstract

Cladophora glomerata is a species of green algae from the Cladophoraceae family belonging to the class Ulvophyceae. This filamentous macroalga is generally associated with freshwater habitats, especially in nutrient-rich ecosystems. It produces high biomass and occupies large areas of freshwater. The robust [...] Read more.

Cladophora glomerata is a species of green algae from the Cladophoraceae family belonging to the class Ulvophyceae. This filamentous macroalga is generally associated with freshwater habitats, especially in nutrient-rich ecosystems. It produces high biomass and occupies large areas of freshwater. The robust filaments of Cladophora glomerata form dense mats that are easy to harvest. It is also rich in proteins, macro- and micronutrients, and other bioactive compounds. Therefore, its biomass could be used in various fields of sustainable agriculture, for example, promoting plant growth and yield, purifying soil, improving crop properties against biotic and abiotic stress, or it could be used in husbandry as a feed supplement. It is also becoming increasingly attractive for use in sustainable farming. This review provides an update with the latest information on the use of freshwater Cladophora glomerata in sustainable farming and suggests the most promising fields of research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Role of Plant-Growth-Promoting Microorganisms in Agriculture: Mitigating Climate Change Impact—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 3183 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Spreading-Stem-Growth Mutation in Lolium perenne: A New Genetic Resource for Turf Phenotypes

by Izolda Pašakinskienė

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2541; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112541 - 31 Oct 2025

Viewed by 619

Abstract

In Lolium perenne, a novel growth habit mutant, named VIROIZ, was recovered following colchicine treatment, and it was confirmed to maintain the diploid chromosome number (2n = 2x = 14). The mutation affected the stem morphology by inducing prolific [...] Read more.

In Lolium perenne, a novel growth habit mutant, named VIROIZ, was recovered following colchicine treatment, and it was confirmed to maintain the diploid chromosome number (2n = 2x = 14). The mutation affected the stem morphology by inducing prolific axillary shoot formation at nodal zones, resulting in a spreading growth habit that can extend to ~70 cm in width. Inheritance analysis based on single-plant evaluations in crosses with wild-type plants (F₁, n = 285; F₂, n = 380) and in selfed progeny (S₁, n = 255) consistently showed ~40% expression of the spreading phenotype, deviating from classical Mendelian ratios and indicating complex genetic control. Phenotypic selection further distinguished divergent classes: positively selected lines (C1⁺) averaged 3.90 axillary tillers per stem, whereas negatively selected lines (C1⁻) averaged only 0.22. Partial sequencing of 11 candidate genes implicated in shoot architecture, covering 40–90% of full-length DNA, did not provide a conclusive explanation for the altered stem growth. Notably, a single point mutation was observed in CRT3 (an endoplasmic reticulum chaperone that interacts with brassinosteroid signaling) highlighting it as a primary target for future studies. Cytological analysis of meiosis in F₁ hybrids between VIROIZ and wild-type plants revealed irregular chromosome pairing with persistent univalents (2–4 per cell), supporting the presence of structural chromosomal rearrangements that may disrupt gene organization and function in VIROIZ. The non-Mendelian segregation of the spreading phenotype, together with the observed meiotic irregularities, suggests that the mutation affects regulatory genes responsive to hormonal signals controlling axillary meristem initiation. The mutant represents a valuable resource for turf-type L. perenne breeding and for studying hormonal regulation of shoot morphogenesis in Poaceae. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies for Forage Breeding and Cultivation Under Challenging Conditions)

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