Anatomia, Volume 5, Issue 2 (June 2026) – 8 articles

Multiple rare vascular variations were identified in a 97-year-old female donor during the dissection of the gastrointestinal system. An anomalous middle colic artery originated from the celiac trunk alongside the three normal branches. The left hepatic artery, an accessory left hepatic artery, and the right hepatic artery all originated from the proper hepatic artery. The right hepatic artery exhibited a “caterpillar hump” and an abnormal tripod distal branching pattern, consisting of a very short cystic artery and two short right hepatic arteries (one superior and one inferior). Additionally, an accessory cystic artery arose from the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery, ascending inferiorly to the common bile duct and cystic duct towards the gallbladder to join the cystic artery posteriorly. The right and middle colic arteries originated from a right colic middle colic common arterial trunk. The left colic artery and the sigmoidal arteries also originated from a left colic-sigmoidal common arterial trunk. Surgical and medical procedures in the pancreaticobiliary region are widespread, and cholecystectomy is one of the most common surgeries performed worldwide. A laparoscopic approach is the current ‘gold standard’ surgical approach. Knowledge of these potential gastrointestinal vascular variations is essential to ensure patient safety and avoid iatrogenic complications. The presence of an unidentified caterpillar-type right hepatic artery poses a significant risk of accidental ligation during cholecystectomy. Similarly, the presence of common colic arterial trunks alters the vascular landscape for laparoscopic colectomy. To ensure favorable surgical outcomes, comprehensive preoperative vascular imaging should be performed to identify such rare configurations. In this article, we discussed the frequency, embryology, physiology, and clinical and surgical implications of the anatomical variations present in this donor. To date, there have been no other reports in the literature describing this specific combination of variations. Full article

Morphological disciplines, namely Human Anatomy, Histology, and Embryology, have traditionally provided the foundational knowledge for medical education, offering spatial, cellular, and temporal coordinates of the human body. However, reducing these disciplines to static and purely descriptive learning undermines their deeper purpose: interpreting morphology as the dynamic outcome of biological processes. This review emphasizes three interrelated pillars of morphological sciences—cell differentiation, tissue homeostasis, and organ remodeling—as essential frameworks for understanding both normal physiology and disease pathogenesis. Cell differentiation establishes functional identity, tissue homeostasis ensures structural stability, and organ remodeling enables adaptation to both physiological and pathological stimuli. Dysregulation of these programs underlies a wide range of conditions, from degenerative diseases and chronic inflammation to neoplasms. Integrating classical morphological knowledge with modern approaches—including stem cell biology, organoids, tissue engineering, and computational modeling—enables predictive and regenerative strategies in personalized medicine. Furthermore, recent advances in artificial intelligence applied to histopathology have enhanced our capacity to detect early deviations from homeostasis and guide targeted interventions. By combining spatial, cellular, and molecular perspectives, the morphological sciences can provide clinicians with tools to interpret disease as the result of altered biological programs, anticipate pathology, and design precise therapeutic strategies. This integrated approach highlights the renewed centrality of morphology in contemporary medicine, bridging foundational knowledge with predictive, regenerative, and personalized healthcare. Full article

Background: Among the superficial flexor muscles of the upper limb, the Palmaris longus muscle is the most susceptible to anatomical variation. The most common anatomical variant is complete bilateral absence, followed by unilateral absence. Although considerable study has been conducted on the frequency of Palmaris longus muscle absences in Africa, much of it has been conducted at the national level. The pooled prevalence of Palmaris longus absence in Africa has not been established. Objectives: To assess the absence of Palmaris longus muscle and its clinical significance in Africa cadaveric and clinical studies: systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods: We thoroughly examined Google Scholar, PubMed/med line, Science Direct, Hinari, African online journals, Web of Sciences, Central, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane, and institutional repositories. The studies’ quality were assessed using the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. The pooled prevalence of Palmaris longus muscle absences was estimated using a random-effects meta-analysis model. Data analysis was conducted using STATA 17; heterogeneity, funnel plots, and meta-regression were examined. Sensitivity analyses, publication bias, and subgroup analysis by study time code, location code, and sample size code were also carried out. Result: A total of 23 studies were included in the meta-analysis. The pooled prevalence of Palmaris longus absence in Africa was 14.0% (95% CI: 10.0–18.0). However, there was significant variation in reported prevalence rates, as seen by the significant heterogeneity found across studies (I² = 99.13%). The results were not significantly changed by sensitivity analysis. Conclusions and recommendation: This study found that the Palmaris longus muscle is absent in 14% of African populations. Comparison with international studies revealed both similarities and differences, influenced by methodology and genetic factors. Clinicians should consider this prevalence when advising patients requiring tendon grafts. Further long-term studies using imaging techniques (MRI; ultrasound) are recommended to improve understanding in African populations and globally. Full article

Background/Objectives: The seventh cervical vertebra (C7), the terminal segment of the cervical spine, demonstrates transitional characteristics between the cervical and thoracic regions. The transverse foramen (TF), a defining feature of all cervical vertebrae, is consistently present in C1 to C6 but shows marked variability at C7, appearing rudimentary or atypical. This study aimed to analyze the prevalence and morphology of TF of the C7 vertebra in the South African skeletal collection. The objectives of the study were to document the absence of the C7 TF, describe its morphological characteristics, and investigate associations between the C7 TF morphology and demographic factors. Methods: An exploratory osteological anatomical study appraised dry macerated C7 vertebrae. A total of six hundred and eighty-nine (n = 689) C7 vertebrae were analyzed. Frequency and descriptive statistics were used, as well as cross tabulations, to determine relationships between demographic factors and the presence or absence of a TF at C7. Results: Bilateral TF were present in 98.5% (n = 679) of vertebrae; 1.5% (n = 10) exhibited unilateral absence (4 left, 6 right). No bilateral absence was observed. The oval-oblique (toward midline) configuration was the most frequent shape bilaterally (left: 36.3%; right: 43.4%). Accessory double foramina occurred in 5.6% (left) and 8.3% (right); triple accessory foramina were rare (0.3%, right side only). Significant associations were found between TF shape and population affinity (p = 0.000, both sides) and age (p = 0.025 left, p = 0.037 right). A weak association was found between sex and right TF shape (p = 0.025). Conclusions: The findings support clinical and surgical implications for anatomical understanding of the vertebral artery, vein, and sympathetic nerve fibre pathways. The enclosed TF variation predominated, and triple accessory foramina were rare but notable. Full article

Background: Minimal access surgeries are growing more common in neonatal care, but the risk of accidental injury to abdominal wall blood vessels remains a concern. This risk is increased by limited precise anatomical data specific to neonates. Therefore, this study aimed to quantitatively map the superficial and deep blood vessels of the neonatal anterior abdominal wall concerning important surgical landmarks to develop evidence-based recommendations for safer laparoscopic port placement. Methods: Thirty formalin-fixed low-birth-weight neonatal body donations (≤4 weeks old) were dissected. An anatomical grid based on palpable landmarks—including the umbilicus, xiphoid process, and anterior superior iliac spines—was utilised to measure distances to the nearest vessels via digital image analysis. In situ topography of the liver, stomach, and umbilical vessels was also documented. Results: A midline corridor of reduced vascular density was identified; minimum circumferential distances to deep vessels above the umbilicus averaged 6.84–6.88 mm. Conversely, lateral regions were highly vascular, particularly at or below the transumbilical plane, with distances to deep vessels as short as 1.08 ± 0.83 mm. The liver and stomach extended significantly below the costal margin (averaging 20.61 ± 8.29 mm and 34.18 ± 14.44 mm, respectively). Conclusions: The results establish an anatomical foundation for using the reduced vascular midline for port placement and highlight the importance of inserting secondary lateral ports under direct visualisation. Full article

A palatine torus (torus palatinus) is a bony mass in the midline of the hard palate. Its prevalence varies widely in different populations, ranging from around 1% to over 60%. Females seem to be affected more often. Despite its benign nature, a palatine torus might cause problems with removable prosthetics, phonation, and mastication. Here, we propose a novel classification system for the systematic description of a palatine torus. Our system includes symmetry, localization, shape, and size of a palatine torus. This might help to standardize future investigations on this topic. Full article

In this experiment, we used a late 17th century embalming protocol for the long-term preservation (7.2 years) of an infant-sized piglet in order to evaluate the success of this technique over a period of several years. According to the description of the French anatomist Penicher (published in 1699), an 8.8 kg female piglet corpse was treated with a broad spectrum of herbs, seeds, leaves, flowers and dried berries, along with an alcohol-based fluid following subtotal exenteration and a reduction in peripheral muscle mass. The further process of this dry embalming technique was monitored by visual, tactile and olfactory evaluation of the embalmed body, along with a record of the body weight. Repeatedly taking samples from the skin and soft tissues provided insight into eventual changes on a histomorphological level and two whole-body CT scans complemented the evaluation of the internal changes within the corpse, which was eventually examined at autopsy. On the macroscopic level, we recorded slight signs of autolysis and very mild putrefaction within the first few weeks and a very well preserved and stable body over the subsequent years of evaluation. In parallel, we noted a gradual loss of fluid, as shown by a reduction in the body weight. This occurred faster in the first year (reduction in body weight by ca. 25%) than in the following ca. 4 years (with another ca. 25% loss of body weight). The CT scans showed stable osseous and soft tissue structures, while the few remaining internal organs that had been left inside the body after initial evisceration (such as kidneys and internal genitalia) had already completely disappeared after approx. 1 year. On the histological level, the histoanatomy of skin, subcutis and muscle remained intact over the entire observation period. A loss of epidermal cell nuclei was not noted before day 1772 and there were only slight signs of adipocire formation of fat tissue at the end point of observation (day 2634). In summary, we can confirm that excellent body preservation of external skin and soft tissue was maintained over a considerably long period (in this case, 7.2 years) using the applied protocol of dry embalming, but a complete loss of residual internal organs/structures beyond skin, subcutaneous fat tissue and muscle. Previous observations of the excellent preservation of an infant mummy that underwent the dry embalming procedure are very plausible. Full article

Background and Objectives: To study the bony compartmentalization of the jugular foramen in comparison with existing anatomical models. Materials and Methods: We carried out the study on 59 undamaged dry adult human skulls of known age and sex. Two independent examiners with 10 years of experience in anatomical studies by visual inspections determined the type of osseous septation at the inner surface of the jugular foramina. Relationships between jugular foramen morphology and laterality were assessed at the foraminal level, while associations with age groups and sex were evaluated at the skull level. The data obtained was analyzed using the chi-square statistical test to determine the possibility that two or more variables were associated. Results: Different types of jugular foramina were observed: a single foramen without bony spurs was rarely observed (0.9%). Bipartite and tripartite partial or total foramina were frequent (42.2% and 51.4%, respectively). Partial quadripartite foramina were more rarely observed (5.5%). Complete bony bridges were observed in 13 right and 11 left jugular foramina (24/109, 22.01%). Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in the occurrence of bony bridges in relation to sex, age, laterality, or foramen partition. As regards the bipartite foramina on the left, we found that in males the frequency was higher in older subjects compared to younger ones; although statistical significance was not reached (p = 0.054). Furthermore, the absence of the intrajugular process from the occipital bone was much higher (45.9%) than that from the temporal bone (1.8%), and this difference was statistically significant (p = 0.0001). Conclusions: The jugular foramen from our studies appears mostly septate. These partitions fit well into the anatomical models existing in the literature for the jugular foramina. Our study fits into the anatomical models of the septum and subdivision of the jugular foramen, especially the bipartite and tripartite ones, even if there are differences related to the behavior of the meninges present in some current anatomical models. The existing literature relates primarily to ethnic groups other than our study, which was conducted on European skulls. Full article