Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5020014

Authors: Tilahun Bitew Mamaru Getinet Addisu Simachew Asgai Fentahun Adane Habtamu Molla Gietie Ashagrie Anteneh Aderajew Agmass Adebabay Bickes Wube Demeke Shumu Negesse Worku Abie Liyew

Background: Among the superficial flexor muscles of the upper limb, the Palmaris longus muscle is the most susceptible to anatomical variation. The most common anatomical variant is complete bilateral absence, followed by unilateral absence. Although considerable study has been conducted on the frequency of Palmaris longus muscle absences in Africa, much of it has been conducted at the national level. The pooled prevalence of Palmaris longus absence in Africa has not been established. Objectives: To assess the absence of Palmaris longus muscle and its clinical significance in Africa cadaveric and clinical studies: systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods: We thoroughly examined Google Scholar, PubMed/med line, Science Direct, Hinari, African online journals, Web of Sciences, Central, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane, and institutional repositories. The studies’ quality were assessed using the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. The pooled prevalence of Palmaris longus muscle absences was estimated using a random-effects meta-analysis model. Data analysis was conducted using STATA 17; heterogeneity, funnel plots, and meta-regression were examined. Sensitivity analyses, publication bias, and subgroup analysis by study time code, location code, and sample size code were also carried out. Result: A total of 23 studies were included in the meta-analysis. The pooled prevalence of Palmaris longus absence in Africa was 14.0% (95% CI: 10.0–18.0). However, there was significant variation in reported prevalence rates, as seen by the significant heterogeneity found across studies (I2 = 99.13%). The results were not significantly changed by sensitivity analysis. Conclusions and recommendation: This study found that the Palmaris longus muscle is absent in 14% of African populations. Comparison with international studies revealed both similarities and differences, influenced by methodology and genetic factors. Clinicians should consider this prevalence when advising patients requiring tendon grafts. Further long-term studies using imaging techniques (MRI; ultrasound) are recommended to improve understanding in African populations and globally.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5020013

Authors: Erin Jones Glen James Paton

Background/Objectives: The seventh cervical vertebra (C7), the terminal segment of the cervical spine, demonstrates transitional characteristics between the cervical and thoracic regions. The transverse foramen (TF), a defining feature of all cervical vertebrae, is consistently present in C1 to C6 but shows marked variability at C7, appearing rudimentary or atypical. This study aimed to analyze the prevalence and morphology of TF of the C7 vertebra in the South African skeletal collection. The objectives of the study were to document the absence of the C7 TF, describe its morphological characteristics, and investigate associations between the C7 TF morphology and demographic factors. Methods: An exploratory osteological anatomical study appraised dry macerated C7 vertebrae. A total of six hundred and eighty-nine (n = 689) C7 vertebrae were analyzed. Frequency and descriptive statistics were used, as well as cross tabulations, to determine relationships between demographic factors and the presence or absence of a TF at C7. Results: Bilateral TF were present in 98.5% (n = 679) of vertebrae; 1.5% (n = 10) exhibited unilateral absence (4 left, 6 right). No bilateral absence was observed. The oval-oblique (toward midline) configuration was the most frequent shape bilaterally (left: 36.3%; right: 43.4%). Accessory double foramina occurred in 5.6% (left) and 8.3% (right); triple accessory foramina were rare (0.3%, right side only). Significant associations were found between TF shape and population affinity (p = 0.000, both sides) and age (p = 0.025 left, p = 0.037 right). A weak association was found between sex and right TF shape (p = 0.025). Conclusions: The findings support clinical and surgical implications for anatomical understanding of the vertebral artery, vein, and sympathetic nerve fibre pathways. The enclosed TF variation predominated, and triple accessory foramina were rare but notable.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5020012

Authors: Daniël J. van Tonder Natalie Keough Martin L. van Niekerk Albert van Schoor

Background: Minimal access surgeries are growing more common in neonatal care, but the risk of accidental injury to abdominal wall blood vessels remains a concern. This risk is increased by limited precise anatomical data specific to neonates. Therefore, this study aimed to quantitatively map the superficial and deep blood vessels of the neonatal anterior abdominal wall concerning important surgical landmarks to develop evidence-based recommendations for safer laparoscopic port placement. Methods: Thirty formalin-fixed low-birth-weight neonatal body donations (≤4 weeks old) were dissected. An anatomical grid based on palpable landmarks—including the umbilicus, xiphoid process, and anterior superior iliac spines—was utilised to measure distances to the nearest vessels via digital image analysis. In situ topography of the liver, stomach, and umbilical vessels was also documented. Results: A midline corridor of reduced vascular density was identified; minimum circumferential distances to deep vessels above the umbilicus averaged 6.84–6.88 mm. Conversely, lateral regions were highly vascular, particularly at or below the transumbilical plane, with distances to deep vessels as short as 1.08 ± 0.83 mm. The liver and stomach extended significantly below the costal margin (averaging 20.61 ± 8.29 mm and 34.18 ± 14.44 mm, respectively). Conclusions: The results establish an anatomical foundation for using the reduced vascular midline for port placement and highlight the importance of inserting secondary lateral ports under direct visualisation.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5020011

Authors: Philipp Christians Michael J. Schmeisser Sven Schumann

A palatine torus (torus palatinus) is a bony mass in the midline of the hard palate. Its prevalence varies widely in different populations, ranging from around 1% to over 60%. Females seem to be affected more often. Despite its benign nature, a palatine torus might cause problems with removable prosthetics, phonation, and mastication. Here, we propose a novel classification system for the systematic description of a palatine torus. Our system includes symmetry, localization, shape, and size of a palatine torus. This might help to standardize future investigations on this topic.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5020010

Authors: Andreas G. Nerlich Stephanie Panzer Oliver K. Peschel

In this experiment, we used a late 17th century embalming protocol for the long-term preservation (7.2 years) of an infant-sized piglet in order to evaluate the success of this technique over a period of several years. According to the description of the French anatomist Penicher (published in 1699), an 8.8 kg female piglet corpse was treated with a broad spectrum of herbs, seeds, leaves, flowers and dried berries, along with an alcohol-based fluid following subtotal exenteration and a reduction in peripheral muscle mass. The further process of this dry embalming technique was monitored by visual, tactile and olfactory evaluation of the embalmed body, along with a record of the body weight. Repeatedly taking samples from the skin and soft tissues provided insight into eventual changes on a histomorphological level and two whole-body CT scans complemented the evaluation of the internal changes within the corpse, which was eventually examined at autopsy. On the macroscopic level, we recorded slight signs of autolysis and very mild putrefaction within the first few weeks and a very well preserved and stable body over the subsequent years of evaluation. In parallel, we noted a gradual loss of fluid, as shown by a reduction in the body weight. This occurred faster in the first year (reduction in body weight by ca. 25%) than in the following ca. 4 years (with another ca. 25% loss of body weight). The CT scans showed stable osseous and soft tissue structures, while the few remaining internal organs that had been left inside the body after initial evisceration (such as kidneys and internal genitalia) had already completely disappeared after approx. 1 year. On the histological level, the histoanatomy of skin, subcutis and muscle remained intact over the entire observation period. A loss of epidermal cell nuclei was not noted before day 1772 and there were only slight signs of adipocire formation of fat tissue at the end point of observation (day 2634). In summary, we can confirm that excellent body preservation of external skin and soft tissue was maintained over a considerably long period (in this case, 7.2 years) using the applied protocol of dry embalming, but a complete loss of residual internal organs/structures beyond skin, subcutaneous fat tissue and muscle. Previous observations of the excellent preservation of an infant mummy that underwent the dry embalming procedure are very plausible.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5020009

Authors: Paola Lorenzoni Daniela Franci Massimo Guarna Gianluca Marcaccini Roberto Cuomo Ishith Seth Warren Matthew Rozen Margherita Aglianò

Background and Objectives: To study the bony compartmentalization of the jugular foramen in comparison with existing anatomical models. Materials and Methods: We carried out the study on 59 undamaged dry adult human skulls of known age and sex. Two independent examiners with 10 years of experience in anatomical studies by visual inspections determined the type of osseous septation at the inner surface of the jugular foramina. Relationships between jugular foramen morphology and laterality were assessed at the foraminal level, while associations with age groups and sex were evaluated at the skull level. The data obtained was analyzed using the chi-square statistical test to determine the possibility that two or more variables were associated. Results: Different types of jugular foramina were observed: a single foramen without bony spurs was rarely observed (0.9%). Bipartite and tripartite partial or total foramina were frequent (42.2% and 51.4%, respectively). Partial quadripartite foramina were more rarely observed (5.5%). Complete bony bridges were observed in 13 right and 11 left jugular foramina (24/109, 22.01%). Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in the occurrence of bony bridges in relation to sex, age, laterality, or foramen partition. As regards the bipartite foramina on the left, we found that in males the frequency was higher in older subjects compared to younger ones; although statistical significance was not reached (p = 0.054). Furthermore, the absence of the intrajugular process from the occipital bone was much higher (45.9%) than that from the temporal bone (1.8%), and this difference was statistically significant (p = 0.0001). Conclusions: The jugular foramen from our studies appears mostly septate. These partitions fit well into the anatomical models existing in the literature for the jugular foramina. Our study fits into the anatomical models of the septum and subdivision of the jugular foramen, especially the bipartite and tripartite ones, even if there are differences related to the behavior of the meninges present in some current anatomical models. The existing literature relates primarily to ethnic groups other than our study, which was conducted on European skulls.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5010008

Authors: Jacobus J. Gates Kirsten S. Regan Lané Prigge Gerda Venter

Background and objectives: Accurate anatomical knowledge of the transverse dural venous sinuses (TS) is essential for safe neurosurgical procedures, particularly in resource-limited settings where advanced imaging modalities may be unavailable. Despite the TS’s clinical importance, detailed cadaveric studies focusing solely on its morphology are scarce. This study investigated the length, width, and shape of the TS in adult human cadavers, assessing anatomical dominance and morphological variations relevant to surgical planning. Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted on 32 formalin-fixed adult cadavers (20 male, 12 female) at the University of Pretoria in South Africa. The TS was examined bilaterally within the dura mater and the corresponding transverse sulcus. Lengths were measured using a string and a ruler to accommodate curvature, while widths at the origin, midpoint, and termination were measured using digital calipers. Statistical analyses included Shapiro–Wilk tests, paired t-tests, and intra-class correlation to determine significance and reliability. Results: The average TS length was 72.54 mm (left) and 70.23 mm (right), with no statistically significant differences between sides. Right-sided dominance in TS width was observed in 71.88% of cases. A significant narrowing at the midpoint, followed by widening at the termination, was consistently noted, especially in males. Differences between dural and bony groove widths suggested that sulcal impressions may not accurately reflect TS dimensions. Conclusions: The TS demonstrates significant morphological variability, including asymmetry and abrupt dimensional changes. These findings underscore the importance of direct anatomical reference for surgical navigation, particularly in low-resource settings lacking advanced imaging.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5010007

Authors: Daniël J. van Tonder Natalie Keough Martin L. van Niekerk Albert van Schoor

Introduction: Understanding superficial epigastric vessel anatomy is crucial for abdominal surgeries like laparoscopy, especially in neonates, to prevent injury. While standard courses are described, variations occur. This case report highlights a unique anatomical variation in the superficial epigastric artery found during the dissection of a stillborn neonatal cadaver. Case Report: In contrast to the usual origin from the femoral artery, this variation features the inferior epigastric artery penetrating the anterior abdominal wall near the umbilicus and branching superiorly to supply the superficial abdominal wall. Conclusions: This distinctive vascular configuration, which to the best of our knowledge has not been previously described in neonatal anatomical literature, diverges from the typical symmetrical arrangement and previously reported variations. The study stresses the clinical importance of this finding, especially for laparoscopic procedures in neonates. During trocar placement, surgeons should be cognizant of such variations to reduce the risk of iatrogenic injuries, including rectus sheath hematoma. The report highlights the need for further investigation to establish the prevalence of this variation and its potential effects on surgical safety and outcomes in a broader neonatal population, which may also reflect the dynamic vascular remodeling that occurs during early developmental stages.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5010006

Authors: Sasha Mosig Lané Prigge

The biceps brachii muscle is a two-headed muscle located in the anterior compartment of the arm. Anatomical variations observed in the biceps brachii muscle are not uncommon. However, very few incidents are reported on a unilateral, rarely described accessory pectoral head in conjunction with the more commonly seen accessory humeral head. This anatomical variation was encountered during routine educational dissection and is the first case of this specific type of four-headed biceps brachii muscle to be described in detail. Variations in the biceps brachii morphology are linked to neurovascular compression, kinematic irregularities and variations in the musculocutaneous nerve. Knowledge of anatomical variations in the biceps brachii muscle is essential for understanding kinematic abnormalities, preventing surgical complications, and diagnosing symptoms of neurovascular compression.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5010005

Authors: Caio Siqueira Kuhn Marcelo Lucas de Lima Prado Iapunira Catarina Sant’Anna Aragão Felipe Matheus Sant’Anna Aragão Francisco Prado Reis Deise Maria Furtado de Mendonça José Aderval Aragão

Objectives: The Pulmonary Auscultatory Triangle (PAT) is a bilateral region on the back delimited by the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, and scapula. Beyond its relevance for pulmonary auscultation, PAT also represents an important anatomical window for posterior thoracic approaches. While its anatomy has been extensively described in adults, data on its developmental morphology during fetal life remain scarce. This original morphometric study aimed to characterize the morphometry and morphology of the PAT in human fetuses and to evaluate differences according to sex, side, and gestational age. Methods: A total of 80 PATs from 40 human fetuses (20 male and 20 female) were examined. Using ImageJ software 1.54k, we measured margin lengths (inferior trapezius, medial scapular, and superior latissimus), area, and perimeter. Morphological classification was performed based on internal angles. Associations with sex, side, and gestational age were statistically assessed. Results: The mean gestational age was 28.6 weeks. PAT had a mean area of 103.2 mm2 and a mean perimeter of 49.1 mm. Mean margin lengths were 20.1 mm for the trapezius, 12.4 mm for the scapular margin, and 16.6 mm for the latissimus dorsi. Three morphologies were observed: acute (42.5%), obtuse (25.0%), and rectangular (32.5%). A significant asymmetry in shape distribution was found between sides (p = 0.034). Weak but statistically significant positive correlations with gestational age were found for perimeter and for the trapezius and latissimus dorsi margins, indicating progressive enlargement with fetal growth. Conclusions: This study provides the first detailed morphometric and morphological description of the PAT in human fetuses. The findings establish a developmental anatomical baseline for the posterior thoracic wall and highlight growth-related changes and side-related variability.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5010004

Authors: Mason Nolan Ethan Marting Sarah Willard James Applegate Morgan Turnow Taylor Manes Benjamin C. Taylor

Anterolateral knee pain is a common complaint that can be debilitating for patients if not treated properly. Lateral Patellar Compression Syndrome (LPCS), characterized by the maltracking of the patella with flexion, placing undue stress on the lateral patellar facet, is a common mechanism causing anterolateral knee pain. Symptoms tend to be exacerbated with deep/prolonged flexion as the lateral patellar facet is compressed on the lateral trochlear groove of the femur. While conservative treatment methods are often sufficient, persistent pain may indicate surgical intervention to correct mechanical malalignment. The surgical treatment of LPCS is not widely agreed upon, with numerous techniques being practiced and no single procedure being considered optimal. This narrative review synthesizes the available literature on surgical techniques for LPCS treatment. A comprehensive search strategy was not employed, limiting the systematic nature of our findings.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5010003

Authors: Marcos C. De Almeida

What is known today as the triangle of Koch (the triangular locus of the atrioventricular node, TLAVN) is bordered by the fibrous attachment of the septal cusp of tricuspid valve, the opening of the coronary sinus and tendon of valve of inferior vena cava (TIVCV). This is a concept developed cumulatively by several exceptional anatomists. The literature was reviewed with a focus on the discovery of the atrioventricular node by Sunao Tawara (January 1906), its previous announcement by Tawara’s mentor Ludwig Aschoff (1905), and the contributions of the authors who described the other components of the triangular locus. Francesco Todaro discovered the TIVCV (1865); Tawara described the atrioventricular node and its relationship with the fibrous attachment of the septal cusp of tricuspid valve and the opening of the coronary sinus. The first description of assembling all components was provided by Arthur Keith (March 1906). Keith was also the first to consider the triangular locus as a useful landmark for identifying the atrial structures of the conduction system discovered by Tawara and Wilhelm His Jr. (1893). Julius Tandler named the TLAVN as Koch’s triangle (1913). Keith’s contributions to this topic have been particularly overlooked. The “triangular locus of the atrioventricular node” or “triangle of the atrioventricular node” are more instructive and impartial names.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5010002

Authors: Sandeep Silawal Mustafa Kandemir Franz Stelzl Valentina Oberguggenberger Kristinko Martinovic Maria Kokozidou Niels Hammer Gundula Schulze-Tanzil

While performing a routine anatomical dissection on a male donor, undergraduate medical students observed an uncommon vascular anomaly: a persistent left superior vena cava (LSVC). Prior to the anatomical dissection, computed tomography (CT) images were obtained in an embalmed condition. Relevant anatomical structures were measured using the JiveX DICOM Viewer. The left brachiocephalic vein (LBV) was present as a communicating vessel with a markedly reduced diameter between the LSVC and the right superior vena cava (RSVC). The diameters of RSVC and LSVC averaged 19.4 mm and 15.2 mm, respectively. The LSVC drained into a dilated coronary sinus (CS), which measured 22.7 mm in diameter. In addition, the left accessory hemiazygos vein collected the 2nd to 5th left intercostal veins, forming a small-caliber venous arch (2.1 mm in diameter) at the T5 vertebral level, which crossed anterior to the thoracic aorta, before draining into the LSVC. In comparison, the azygos venous arch on the right side is connected to the RSVC at T4. Knowledge of such venous variations through preoperative imaging—such as CT, MRI, or echocardiography—can be essential for procedural planning and for minimizing inadvertent complications. This case also highlights a dual approach, combining anatomical dissection with detailed CT analysis of the same specimen, which can both enhance undergraduate anatomical education and contribute to high-quality morphological research.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia5010001

Authors: Diego Panci Francesco Carini Riccardo Chiodo Sabrina David Francesco Cappello Giovanni Tomasello

Background/Objectives: Zenker’s diverticulum (ZD) is a rare but clinically relevant condition. It is a false, pulsion-type diverticulum due to the protrusion of mucosal and submucosal layers through the Killian’s Triangle. Its pathogenesis is multifactorial and entails cricopharyngeus muscle dysfunction and age-related tissue degeneration. This review addresses the current evidence regarding the anatomy, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic approach, and therapeutic management of ZD. Methods: For this literature review, we searched the PubMed and Scopus databases using combinations of keywords relevant to Zenker’s diverticulum, including “Zenker’s diverticulum,” “esophageal diverticula,” “diagnosis,” “endoscopic treatment,” and “surgery”. We included articles published in recent decades, with a focus on most recent ones regarding clinical studies, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and descriptions of new diagnostic and therapeutic techniques. Results: Characteristic symptoms comprise progressive dysphagia, regurgitation of undigested food, halitosis, and, in advanced cases, aspiration-related respiratory complications. Diagnosis of ZD is primarily based on barium swallow esophagography and endoscopic evaluation, complemented by other imaging techniques. Current therapeutic options include traditional open surgery and endoscopic procedures, including newer minimally invasive techniques. Conclusions: ZD is the most common type of esophageal diverticulum and can have a disabling impact on a patient’s quality of life. It is commonly underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed as another condition, and prevalence is expected to increase with the growing population ageing. Improved understanding of its pathophysiology is needed to refine diagnostic and therapeutic strategies and minimize recurrences and risks.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4040020

Authors: Simge Eşme Kaan Orhan Aslıhan Akbulut Emre Cesur Bayram Ufuk Şakul

Background/Objectives: The relationship between occlusion and temporomandibular joint is controversial in the scientific literature. The aim of this study is to evaluate the bone changes in the temporomandibular joint and surrounding bone structures and to determine the effect of malocclusions on the temporomandibular joint by making morphometric measurements in different skeletal classes using three-dimensional cone beam computed tomography images. Methods: A total of 90 patients (30 class I, 30 class II and 30 class III) were included in the study. In each skeletal pattern, condylar osseous changes were evaluated and articular eminence inclination and height, condylar diameters were measured. It was also divided into two age groups: 18–29 and 30 and over. Results: Articular eminence inclination measured with the best-fit line method was significantly higher in Class II compared with class I and III, and in individuals aged ≥30 years. Among osseous changes, only condylar flattening showed a significant age-related increase. The mediolateral condylar diameter was greater in males than females, while the anteroposterior diameter was higher in the ≥30-year age group. Conclusions: Temporomandibular joint morphology demonstrates age- and function-related adaptive remodeling, particularly in articular eminence inclination and condylar dimensions. CBCT-based assessment of these morphological features may assist clinicians in diagnosis and treatment planning, although further studies with larger prospective cohorts are warranted.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4040019

Authors: Giovanna de Oliveira Sá Costa Adler Oliveira Silva Jacó Carvalho Henrique Montalvão Routman da Cunha Wallance Geovane Alexandre Lima Gilvan Paixão Santos Junior Iapunira Catarina Sant’Anna Aragão Felipe Matheus Sant’Anna Aragão Rudvan Cicotti Deise Maria Furtado de Mendonça Francisco Prado Reis José Aderval Aragão

Background/Objectives: Understanding anatomical variations in the abdominal vasculature, particularly of the inferior phrenic arteries (IPAs) and renal arteries (RAs), is essential in surgery and radiology, as such variations directly influence preoperative planning and therapeutic strategies. Although IPAs most commonly arise from the abdominal aorta (AA) or the celiac trunk, and RAs from the AA, anomalous origins have clinical significance, notably the emergence of the IPA from the RA. This study reports the concomitant occurrence of a triple right renal artery and the atypical origin of the ipsilateral inferior phrenic artery. Case Report: During a routine cadaveric dissection, three right renal arteries (superior, middle, and inferior) were identified in an adult male specimen, along with an anomalous origin of the right inferior phrenic artery (RIPA). The RIPA originated from the superior renal artery (SRA), ascended superolaterally to the inferior vena cava and bifurcated at the diaphragmatic dome. The SRA also gave rise to two right inferior suprarenal arteries. Conclusions: The coexistence of a triple renal artery and anomalous origin of the IPA represents an exceptionally uncommon and scarcely reported vascular configuration. This finding underscores the importance of meticulous preoperative vascular mapping, crucial for preventing intraoperative and iatrogenic complications. Broader anatomical and radiological studies are warranted to better elucidate the prevalence, developmental basis, and clinical implications of such variations.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4040018

Authors: Flavio De Angelis Anna Russo Antonio Nappo Giovanna Cataldo Marina Alessandrella Silvia Iorio Valentina Gazzaniga Paola Francesca Rossi Antonio De Luca Dardo Menditti Alfonso Reginelli

Background/Objectives: This study explores the evolution and morphology of the human mandible, focusing on recent changes and adaptations over the last 2000 years. It aims to examine how functional, genetic, and environmental factors influence mandibular size, shape, and sexual dimorphism by analyzing key anatomical landmarks—the horizontal ramus (HR), ascending ramus (AR), and mandibular angle (MA). Methods: A retrospective approach was employed using computed tomography (CT) scans of 39 mandibular samples from various historical periods, ranging from the Roman Imperial Age to the present day. Imaging was conducted using a 64-slice multislice computed tomography (MSCT) scanner, and the resulting data were processed to generate detailed 3D reconstructions for morphological assessment. Results: The analysis reveals that present-day samples exhibit significantly less variation in AR and MA compared to archaeological specimens, suggesting a trend of gracilization over time. Statistically significant differences were found in MA, likely influenced by environmental, dietary, and cultural factors. Correlation analysis showed moderate to weak relationships between AR, HR, and MA across sample groups, with significant sexual dimorphism in AR within the archaeological sample. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) further supported these findings, demonstrating a clear distinction between gracile modern mandibles and more robust ancient ones. Conclusions: These findings provide insights into the evolutionary trajectory of the human mandible, underscoring the influence of dietary and cultural shifts on mandibular structure over the past two millennia.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4040017

Authors: Mauro Vaccarezza Elena Varotto Francesco Maria Galassi Samanta Taurone Luigi Cofone Marco Artico Veronica Papa

The mental eminence (chin) is a uniquely human anatomical feature with critical relevance across multiple domains of biomedical and anthropological research. This transdisciplinary review aims to synthesize current knowledge regarding its morphology, population variability, evolutionary origin, and surgical relevance. A comprehensive scoping review aims to map how the mental eminence has been defined and evaluated in anthropological, forensic research, identifying the main methodological approaches, anatomical landmarks, and sources of morphological variability, as well as the reliability and applicability of current assessment methods in clinical–forensic contexts. The search strategy was performed in October 2025. The authors initially identified 3125 records, and 26 studies were finally included and assessed for qualitative analysis. Moreover, the analysis integrates data from osteological collections, radiographic imaging, and modern morphometric studies. The mental eminence exhibits significant variability across human populations, with pronounced sexual dimorphism and evolutionary distinction from non-human primates. Its emergence in Homo sapiens is a key taxonomic trait. Clinically, the chin serves as a landmark in surgical procedures involving genioplasty, trauma reconstruction, and dental implantology. Recent advances in imaging and biometrics have refined its analysis in both anthropological and diagnostic contexts. Though often overlooked, mental eminence plays a vital role in craniofacial morphology and human evolution. Its study bridges osteology, anthropology, and surgery, offering insight into both phylogenetic development and applied anatomical practice. A multidisciplinary understanding of this structure enhances its diagnostic and therapeutic utility.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4040016

Authors: Homaira M. Azim Dimitrios E. Bakatsias Brittnay K. Harrington Patrick A. Vespa Kristyn A. Spetz

Background: Social networking platforms offer promising educational value, particularly for undergraduate students whose daily lives are deeply embedded in online spaces. Yet in most courses, instructional technologies remain limited to institutional learning management systems (LMSs), which often do not foster informal interaction or community. This study examined whether supplementing LMSs with a Facebook group could enhance academic outcomes and retention in undergraduate Anatomy and Physiology (A&P) courses. Methods: Over two semesters, two student cohorts (n = 39) were taught by the same instructor using identical materials; one cohort also used a closed Facebook group for course-related engagement. Results: While final course grades were not significantly different between groups (p = 0.186), students in the Facebook cohort scored significantly higher on mid-semester unit exams (p < 0.001 to p = 0.006). Regression analysis revealed a 9.4% higher mean final course grade among Facebook users. Importantly, the pass rate in the Facebook cohort was 94.7% compared to 45.0% in the control group, with dropout rates significantly lower (5.3% vs. 55%, p = 0.001). Conclusions: These findings suggest that incorporating social media into undergraduate science instruction may promote academic success and retention by providing a familiar, collaborative space for active learning and peer support.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4040015

Authors: José Aderval Aragão Guilherme Felício Matos Gustavo Henrique Silva da Matta Iapunira Catarina Sant’Anna Aragão Felipe Matheus Sant’Anna Aragão Rudvan Cicotti Francisco Prado Reis Deise Maria Furtado de Mendonça

Background/Objectives: This article discusses the clinical–surgical relevance of vascular anatomical variations, such as fenestrations—the division of a vessel into multiple channels that subsequently rejoin distally. Although rare in peripheral veins, these variations, which originate from the incomplete condensation of the embryonic capillary plexus, can predispose thrombosis and necessitate preoperative recognition to avert complications during routine procedures. This study aims to report a rare case of dual origin and double fenestration of the cephalic vein. Methods: During a cadaveric dissection, a variation of the cephalic vein was identified. Results: In this case, an origin of the cephalic vein was observed arising from the dorsal venous network of the hand. It exhibited a double fenestration in the forearm, where a branch of the medial cutaneous nerve of the forearm perforated it before draining into the brachial vein. The second, a proximal origin, arose from the convergence of two tributaries—one originating from the subcutaneous tissue lateral to the brachial muscle and the other from the biceps brachii muscle, forming a single trunk that drained into the subclavian vein. Conclusions: This rare variation of the cephalic vein (dual origin and fenestration) carries significant hemodynamic implications, including an increased risk of turbulence and thrombosis. The atypical anatomical relationship between the nerve and the fenestrated vein also heightens the potential for iatrogenic injuries. In-depth knowledge of such anomalies is crucial for healthcare professionals to minimize complications and optimize the success of procedures like venous access and arteriovenous fistulas, ultimately ensuring patient safety.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4040014

Authors: Caitlin Dale Florian Kurth Eileen Luders

Background: Larger brains are believed to rely more heavily on intra-hemispheric than inter-hemispheric processing, which may lead to a proportionally reduced callosal size. Methods: To test this hypothesis, we used T1-weighted magnetic resonance images from a large population sample (n = 38,034). The sample was drawn from the UK Biobank and included 19,947 females and 18,087 males, aged between 44 and 83 years (mean ± SD: 64 ± 7.72 years). Linear modelling was used to assess the relationship between proportional callosal volume and total intracranial volume, with sex, age, and handedness included as covariates and interaction terms. Results: We observed a significant negative relationship between proportional callosal volume and total brain volume, such that larger brains had proportionally smaller corpora callosa. Conclusion: These findings support the hypothesis that increasing brain size is associated with reduced inter-hemispheric connectivity, potentially due to conduction constraints that promote greater intra-hemispheric processing in larger brains.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4030013

Authors: David Johnson Gary Wind Maria Ximena Leighton Kerrie Lashley Juan Jose Valenzuela-Fuenzalida Jordan Dimitrakoff Yolanda Roth Joanne Lenert Guinevere Granite

The azygos lobe (AL), an additional lung lobe most commonly found in the right apical lung region, is a rare anatomical variant present in approximately 1% of the population. It is embryological in origin and may form if the azygos vein fails to migrate medially over the lung. While it is normally clinically silent, it can have surgical and clinical implications. An AL can be the source of infection or disease, such as squamous cell carcinoma, and can also compress the upper lobe and lead to obstruction, infarction, and necrotic tissue. Additionally, it can present as an unforeseen surgical obstacle, specifically during a thoracotomy, and can be mistaken for a thoracic mass on radiographic imaging, potentially leading to unnecessary interventions. In this case report, a 38-year-old male donor with a history of Ogilvie’s syndrome, multiple traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), and chronic respiratory failure presented with an AL during routine donor dissection. The cause of death was listed as prostate cancer, hypertension, atrial fibrillation, and type II diabetes mellitus. The AL, located on the posterior apical surface of the right lung, measured 5 cm in width and 8 cm in length. The left lung showed signs of atrophy and discoloration, possibly the result of pollution exposure or smoking earlier in life. In this article, we describe the incidence, historical classification, embryology, and physiology associated with an AL and its clinical implication for this donor.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4030012

Authors: Frits C. de Beer Harry W. M. Steinbusch

Background: Lower phylogenetic species are known to rebuild cut-off caudal parts with regeneration of the central nervous system (CNS). In contrast, CNS regeneration in higher vertebrates is often attributed to immaturity, although this has never been conclusively demonstrated. The emergence of stem cells and their effective medical applications has intensified research into spinal cord regeneration. However, despite these advances, the impact of clinical trials involving spinal cord-injured (SCI) patients remains disappointingly low. Long-distance regeneration has yet to be proven. Methods: Our study involved a microsurgical dorsal myelotomy in fetal rats. The development of pioneering long primary afferent axons during early gestation was examined long after birth. Results: A single cut triggered the intrinsic ability of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons to reprogram. Susceptibility to hypoxia caused the axons to stop developing. However, the residual axonal outgrowth sheds light on the intriguing temporal and spatial events that reveal long-distance CNS regeneration. The altered phenotypes displayed axons of varying lengths and different features, which remained visible throughout life. The previously designed developmental blueprint was crucial for interpreting these enigmatic features. Conclusions: This research into immaturity enabled the exploration of the previously impenetrable domain of early life and the identification of a potential missing link in CNS regeneration research. Central axon regeneration appeared to occur much faster than is generally believed. The paradigm provides a challenging approach for exhaustive intrauterine reprogramming. When the results demonstrate pre-clinical effectiveness in CNS regeneration research, the transformational impact may ultimately lead to improved outcomes for patients with spinal cord injuries.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4030011

Authors: Kristin Mayer-Zugai Iris Georgiadou Christel Weiss Alexander Ast Hans Scheffel

Objective: The aim of this study was to determine whether preoperative MRI has an impact on surgical planning in breast cancer patients. Tumor extent and molecular breast cancer subtypes were evaluated. Methods: This was a single-center study including 137 female patients with a first diagnosis of invasive breast cancer. Each patient had a standard clinical preoperative workup and an additional breast MRI. The interdisciplinary tumor board made written recommendations regarding the surgical therapy of each patient with and without the knowledge of the MRI findings. Results: The addition of MRI led to changes in surgical recommendations in 32 (23%) of the 137 patients. The highest rate of change in surgical therapy recommendations was observed in patients with multifocal tumors (53%). Molecular subtype had no influence on the changes in surgical therapy recommendations (p = 0.8). Conclusions: Patients with multifocal breast tumors were more likely to have a change in surgical therapy following MRI.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4030010

Authors: Abel Diz López Mateo V. Torres Fabio Martínez Gómez Silvia Alejandra Fraga Abelleira Ana López-Beceiro Luis Fidalgo Pablo Sanchez-Quinteiro Irene Ortiz-Leal

Background/Objectives: This study explores the ocular anatomy and glandular components of domestic dogs compared to their ancestor, the wolf, with the aim of identifying evolutionary changes due to domestication and their implications for ocular pathologies. Methods: Utilizing histological and histochemical techniques, including hematoxylin–eosin, Periodic Acid–Schiff, Alcian Blue, and lectins, this research conducts a detailed analysis of the canine and wolf ocular systems, focusing on the eyelids, tarsal glands, and conjunctival tissues. Results: There are marked histological differences between the two species, particularly in the thickness and secretion levels of the conjunctival epithelia and the structure of the tarsal glands. Dogs exhibit a thicker epithelium with greater Periodic Acid–Schiff and Alcian Blue positive secretion, suggesting enhanced ocular protection and lubrication adapted to domestic environments. Conversely, wolves display more concentrated glandular secretions and a predominance of acidic mucopolysaccharides, aligning with their adaptation to natural habitats. Conclusions: Although this study is constrained by the limited number of samples, the use of mixed dog breeds, and the focus on the Iberian wolf, it nonetheless suggests histological and evolutionary differences between domestic dogs and wolves, particularly in structures related to ocular surface protection and lubrication. These differences likely reflect adaptive responses to domestication in dogs and environmental demands in wolves. Importantly, the findings emphasize the clinical and translational potential of using dogs as comparative models for human ocular surface disorders, given their anatomical proximity to humans.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4020009

Authors: Luis Alfonso Arráez-Aybar

Anatomy education has long served as a cornerstone of medical training, equipping healthcare professionals with the foundational knowledge necessary for clinical practice. However, the discipline has undergone significant transformations in response to evolving curricula, ethical considerations, and technological advancements. This paper explores the historical development, current state, and future trajectory of anatomy education, focusing on challenges such as ethical concerns regarding cadaveric dissection, and the need for cost-effective alternatives. The study examines innovative teaching methods, including virtual reality, augmented reality and artificial intelligence, which enhance anatomical learning by providing interactive, scalable educational experiences. Additionally, it discusses the integration of anatomy with clinical practice through imaging technologies, competency-based education, and evidence-based approaches. While modern innovations offer valuable learning tools, they cannot entirely replace the hands-on experience and professional identity formation fostered by cadaveric dissection. A balanced approach that combines traditional methodologies with digital advancements is essential for optimizing anatomy education. By leveraging both physical and virtual resources, educators can enhance anatomical comprehension, improve clinical preparedness, and ensure that future healthcare professionals develop both technical expertise and ethical awareness. This paper underscores the need for continued adaptation in anatomy education to align with the demands of modern medicine while preserving its core educational values.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4020008

Authors: Natalia A. Pluta Manuela Gaviria Casey M. Sabbag Shauna Hill

Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) commonly result from trauma, compression, or iatrogenic causes, leading to functional deficits. Despite the peripheral nervous system’s regenerative capacity, current treatments yield inconsistent outcomes. Basic science and translational research supporting nerve repair remain underdeveloped, partly due to the absence of standardized protocols, limiting reproducibility. Animal models are essential for studying injury mechanisms, repair strategies, and therapeutic development. This review examines commonly used animal models in PNI research, from non-mammalian species to rodents and large mammals. We discuss the relevance of injury types, experimental variables (i.e., age, sex, nerve type), and study design elements (i.e., nerve gap size, injury induction methods). Assessing these models’ strengths and limitations, this review aims to guide researchers in selecting appropriate models that enhance preclinical relevance. It also addresses the need for standardized protocols and future directions for improving PNI research and patient outcomes. Various PNI treatments—including microsurgery, nerve grafts, scaffolds, stem cells, immunomodulators, nerve augmentation strategies, and polyethylene glycol-mediated fusion—have been developed using animal models. These models are essential for driving innovation and translating emerging therapies to improve outcomes across a broad range of peripheral nerve injuries.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4020007

Authors: Austin Lawrence Nathaniel B. Dusseau Alina Torres Marquez Cecilia Tompkins Eunice Obi Adel Maklad

Background: The brachial plexus is a network of nerves responsible for the motor and sensory innervation of the upper limb. Variations in the formation and course of the brachial plexus are well documented, though combinations of multiple unilateral abnormalities are rare. The complex pathology of this structure nerve may result in clinical consequences. We present a unique set of brachial plexus abnormalities involving the C4–C6 nerve roots, superior and middle trunks, additional communicating branches, and delayed median nerve union. Case Presentation: During the routine dissection of a 70-year-old female cadaver, several unique variations in the brachial plexus anatomy were identified. The C4 root contributed to C5 before the superior trunk formed, resulting in a superior trunk composed of C4–C6. The C5 root was located anterior to the anterior scalene muscle, whereas C6 maintained its usual posterior position. Additionally, an anterior communicating branch from the middle trunk to the posterior cord was observed. A communicating branch between the lateral and medial cords split into two terminal branches: one merged with the ulnar nerve, and the other joined the medial contribution of the median nerve. The median nerve contributions from the lateral and medial cords merged approximately two inches above the elbow. Conclusions: This rare combination of brachial plexus anomalies has not been previously described in the literature and is of significant clinical relevance. The additional anterior communicating branch from the middle trunk may suggest potential flexor muscle innervation by the posterior cord, which typically innervates extensor muscles. Additionally, the delayed convergence of the median nerve may provide a protective mechanism in cases of midshaft humeral fracture. Awareness of these peripheral nerve abnormalities is important for diagnostic imaging, surgery, or peripheral nerve blocks. Knowledge of such variations is critical for clinicians managing upper limb pathologies.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4020006

Authors: Elio Kmeid Martin Hitier Edmond Jalkh Marion Perreard

Background/Objectives: The hypoglossal nerve plays a crucial role in cervical surgery, requiring precise anatomical knowledge to prevent iatrogenic injury. This study examined its position relative to key structures using cadaveric dissections and assessed ChatGPT-4’s reliability in providing anatomical insights. Methods: Ten cadavers were dissected to identify the hypoglossal nerve’s course in relation to the internal jugular vein, carotid arteries, thyro-linguo-facial trunk, hyoid bone, and digastric muscle. Measurements were taken, and ChatGPT was queried for anatomical guidance and surgical recommendations. Results: The hypoglossal nerve was consistently medial to the internal jugular vein and lateral to the carotid arteries. The measured distances to the surrounding structures showed notable variability, particularly with the thyro-linguo-facial trunk. ChatGPT accurately described major landmarks but overlooked lesser-known anatomical triangles and provided no additional dissection guidance. It primarily suggested intraoperative monitoring and preoperative imaging. Conclusions: The carotid and submandibular triangles serve as reliable landmarks for identifying the hypoglossal nerve. This study highlights an unreported variability in its relationship with the thyro-linguo-facial trunk. ChatGPT, while informative, lacked detailed surgical applicability for dissection.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4020005

Authors: Oliver Ludwig

Background: The alignment of a person’s body segments depends on their innate anatomy and neuromuscular status. Sagittal posture assessments provide valuable information on correctable deficits, which can be used to prevent possible health issues or injuries. Methods: This article provides practical guidance on how to perform a basic photometric sagittal posture analysis in a reproducible manner, which reference points should be used, and which errors should be avoided. For this purpose, based on the current literature, four important evidence-based parameters for evaluation are defined, and literature-based reference values are given for the assessment of posture. Conclusions: When done correctly, the sagittal posture analysis is a valuable tool in the fields of medicine and sports.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4010004

Authors: Robert J. Heins Sara Sloan

Background: The dorsal scapular nerve (DSN) and the long thoracic nerve (LTN) exhibit variable anatomical pathways, which may contribute to upper back pain and impaired scapular movement in affected patients. This study investigates these variations to enhance clinicians’ diagnostic and surgical approaches. Methods: The bilateral cervical regions of 32 formalin-embalmed donors (64 sides) were dissected to document the origin of the DSN, the relationship with the scalene muscles of the DSN, and anatomical connections between the DSN and LTN. Measurements of the distance between the mastoid process and the piercing point of the DSN to the scalene muscle were obtained with digital calipers. Additional measurements were obtained from the medial border of the scapula at two specific locations: the scapular spine (zone 1) and the midpoint between the scapular spine and the inferior angle of the scapula (zone 2). Results: The DSN demonstrated four distinct cervical spinal nerve root origins and five unique scalene muscle piercing patterns. The average distance between the DSNs’ scalene muscle piercing point and the mastoid process was 94.87 ± 10.09 mm, with significantly greater distances observed in male donors compared to female donors (p < 0.001). Connections between the DSN and LTN were identified in 65.2% of the examined cervical regions. The mean distance of the DSN from the medial border of the scapula at zone 2 was significantly greater than at zone 1 (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The anatomical variation findings and classification of the DSN provide valuable insights, offering guidance for conducting clinical procedures of the scalene and rhomboid musculature in a way that minimizes the risk of iatrogenic injury. The documented variations may also assist in the diagnosis and management of DSN-related pathologies such as DSN neuropathy.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4010003

Authors: Sandeep Silawal Philipp Bucher Suvi Kursawe Niels Hammer Christian Werner Ritesh Shrestha Gundula Schulze-Tanzil

Background: Clinical-surgical procedures in the thoracic outlet can be challenging due to the proximity of neurovascular structures to the subclavian vein. Methods: During a routine anatomical dissection in an undergraduate medical study at Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, a novel anatomical finding was observed in an ethanol–glycerin embalmed, 79-year-old female body. In addition to the standard measurements, hematoxylin eosin staining of relevant vessels was performed Results: A nerve branch separating from the brachial plexus at the C6 spinal nerve traversed inferiorly and passed through a fenestration of the subclavian vein in the lateral section, rejoining the lateral cord of the brachial plexus. In addition, hypoplasia of the right-sided internal carotid artery (ICA) and a left-sided internal jugular vein (IJV) hypoplasia were detected. At the left venous angle of the left IJV, a venous saccular aneurysm was found. The ectopic origin of the left ascending pharyngeal artery originated from the initial segment of the left ICA. Also, Langer’s axillary arches were observed bilaterally in the same subject. Conclusions: The anatomical findings in the specimen do not provide a direct symptomatic correlation or functional relevance comparable to clinical observations. Nevertheless, it is important to highlight this discovery as a potential clinical reference for future studies.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4010002

Authors: Eve Sobirey Jonte Schmiech Marie Wegner Fabian Flottmann Matthias Bechstein Maximilian Jungnitz Martin Oertel Jens Fiehler Dieter Krause

Background: Endovascular treatment of venous disease is introducing new therapeutic options in neuroradiology. These procedures are technically challenging and require extensive physician training. Currently, training is mainly conducted on animal models, which presents drawbacks such as ethical concerns and anatomical differences from human vascular architecture. There is no training model that simulates treating intracranial venous disease using original instruments in a real angiography suite. Methods: This work presents the development of a venous system model for endovascular training simulations for integration into the existing Hamburg ANatomical NEurointerventional Simulator (HANNES) for arterial interventions. Results: The manufacturing process established at HANNES and the material used for the arterial vascular models were successfully transferred to the larger 3D-printed vein models. The application test was conducted in a real angiography suite with original instruments by an experienced neurointerventional physician to evaluate the system in terms of geometric mapping, flow, haptics and probing. Conclusion: This newly developed model provides a first approach to simulate an endovascular intervention in the venous system within the HANNES environment. Future expansions might include specific treatment simulations for conditions such as arteriovenous malformations, dural arteriovenous fistulas, sinus vein thrombosis and hydrocephalus.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia4010001

Authors: Marcos Arciniega Prudhvi Gundupalli Alexandra Munson Laszlo Nagy

Background: Peripheral nerve surgeries require extensive practice to address anatomical variability and effectively manage neuropathy symptoms. While these procedures are increasingly performed by other surgical specialists, neurosurgeons bring unparalleled expertise in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Microscopic surgical techniques are essential for minimally invasive procedures, and cadaver-based education provides an invaluable medium for trainees to practice these techniques. However, few papers address these concepts in tandem. This study explores lesser-known peripheral nerve entrapments, highlights minimally invasive microscopic approaches, and advocates for cadaver-based training. Methods: Willed cadavers were embalmed through approved methods by the state anatomical board. For each decompression procedure, a 1–2 cm keyhole incision was made. Further methods are described in each nerve entrapment surgery below. Exploratory sessions with wider incisions were conducted either before or after the minimally invasive procedure to review anatomy or assess procedural success, respectively. Results: Neurosurgical medical education using cadavers allows trainees to practice techniques and enhance their skillset. Cadavers provide a valuable medium for exploring the relevant anatomy and visualizing the correct procedural steps after minimally invasive surgeries. Using microscopes for the procedures further facilitates detailed anatomical observation and technique refinement. Conclusions: Here, we show that cadaver-based medical education offers a realistic and controlled environment for exploring anatomical variability and refining surgical techniques. This method allows for a visual, mental, and tactile understanding, while performing minimally invasive procedures with a microscope on cadavers further enhances trainees’ proficiency, precision, and confidence, equipping them with the skills needed for improved surgical outcomes.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3040024

Authors: Frank W. Stahnisch

This article explores the continuation of the pathological morphology research program at neuroscience-related institutes from the Kaiser Wilhelm Society after World War II. It covers the research tradition in the brain sciences, which can be described by an emphasis on gross anatomy, the functional implications of morphological substrates, and the analysis of neurohistological research paths of the human brain in comparative contexts. To enable examination of the assimilation processes of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society’s legacy, the decisions and developments of the newly created Max Planck Society in Germany and its early brain science facilities will be assessed for the time period from 1948 to 2002. Pertaining to these overall developments in the Max Planck Society, a persistence of the “morphological paradigm” (microanatomy, pathology, comparative anatomy, etc.) can be identified as lasting until the 1960s. The newer “functional paradigm” (neurophysiology, electroencephalography, cybernetics, and behavioral studies) only became more visible when the first generations of the scientific leaders left their positions in this national research society. It is of note that many directors and scientific members, including Detlev Ploog (1920–2005), Dieter Lux (1924–1995), Georg W. Kreutzberg (1932–2019), Otto Detlev Creutzfeldt (1927–1992), Hans Thönen (1928–2012), Manfred Eigen (1927–2019), Erwin Neher (b. 1944), Hartmut Wekerle (b. 1944), Albert Hertz (1921–2018), Bert Sakmann (b. 1942), and Wolf Singer (b. 1943) were part of the American Neuroscience Research Program as associates, members, conference chairs, or trainees. Likewise, they joined the Society for Neuroscience early on, after it had emerged from the Neuroscience Research Program’s steering committee in 1969. This article seeks to clarify the context of the reorganization of the brain research-related Max Planck Institutes during the postwar period after World War II. Its trajectory includes the location of the institutes, their previous involvement in applied research, and personal continuities in scientific leadership positions, contributing to debates during the first decades of the Max Planck Society. The lens of pathological brain research emerges here as an important viewpoint to aid the understanding of the continued impact and concerns over the dominant morphological approaches in postwar West German neurology and psychiatry.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3040023

Authors: Wataru Minamizono Nao Yashima Hiroya Matsunaga Kaoru Fujikawa Hirai Suito Takumi Okunuki Masafumi Ohsako

Disuse osteoporosis occurs due to rest and reduced mechanical stimulation. Under these conditions, bone resorption exceeds bone formation, leading to a decrease in bone density. Vector potential (VP) generators have been developed, and their ability to maintain cartilage thickness has been reported. However, their effects on bone tissue remain unstudied. In this study, experiments were conducted to test the effects of VP on bones that had undergone weight reduction due to hindlimb suspension as a model of disuse osteoporosis. Methods: In this study, 7-week-old male Wistar rats (N = 6 each) were classified into control (CO), hindlimb suspension (HS), and VP energization intervention groups. The tail was used to suspend the HS and VP to remove the load applied to the hindlimbs. The VP conditions were as follows: voltage, 67 mV; frequency, 20 kHz, 0.12 mA; experimental intervention, 30 min/day, 5 days/week, for 3 weeks. At the end of the experimental period, the rats were euthanized with carbon dioxide gas, and histological specimens were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) in the femur and analyzed by electron microscopy, bone morphometry, immunohistology, bone fracture testing, and gene expression analysis. Results: HS decreased trabecular bone density and strength. However, VP maintained a significantly higher bone mass than HS, and VP did not differ from CO in bone strength; more osteoclasts were observed on the bone surface in HS, but they were suppressed in VP, and gene expression of CTSK and MMP-9 was decreased. Conclusions: VP suppressed bone resorption by osteoclasts, suggesting that VP is useful in the treatment of disuse osteoporosis.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3040022

Authors: Christophe Casteleyn Max Bosmans Sofie Muylle Jaco Bakker

The rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) is a non-human primate with a genome that is 93.5% identical to that of humans. Both species, therefore, have numerous phenotypical similarities in common. Consequently, this non-human primate is regularly studied in biomedical research. Not only does the rhesus monkey play an important role as an animal model for studying human disease, but it is also often featured in zoos, and there are substantial feral populations that live in Asia. Since they are exploited as research subjects, their appropriate housing and husbandry and the validation of obtained research data benefit from the comprehension of the rhesus monkey anatomy. Unexpectedly, the number of anatomical documents on the rhesus monkey are largely outnumbered by publications on the anatomy of domestic animals. In addition, the limited number of available anatomical books and atlases are, unfortunately, outdated, e.g., by presenting black-and-white photographs and using archaic nomenclature, or failing to cover the in-depth anatomy of various anatomical systems. Since state-of-the-art data on the rhesus monkey anatomy are requested by biomedical researchers and veterinarians responsible for the daily care of these captive animals, the present study describes the musculature of the foot of the rhesus monkey. It builds on a recently published manuscript on the topographical anatomy of the pelvic limb of this non-human primate. Full-color anatomical (stereomicroscopic) photographs are taken during layer-by-layer dissections of the feet of three rhesus monkeys. All the muscles, from the superficial to the deepest layer, are described using veterinary anatomical nomenclature and annotated on multipaneled figures. Although the foot musculature of the rhesus monkey largely parallels that of its human counterparts, the small number of dissimilarities should be recognized when extrapolating these research data. In addition, a solid understanding of the rhesus monkey anatomy by veterinarians can be valuable during medical interventions, such as surgery for foot injuries.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3040021

Authors: Kevin Thomas Jason Peeler

Objective: The purpose of this cadaveric investigation was to provide a detailed morphologic description of the proximal gastrocnemius within the popliteal region of the knee and test the hypothesis that the gastrocnemius is anatomically positioned to function as an antagonist to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) of the knee. Methods: Twenty-two lower limbs from 11 embalmed cadavers underwent detailed dissection and anatomical analysis. Results: The results indicate that 63.3 ± 5.8% of the popliteal region is comprised of the hamstrings and the gastrocnemius, whereas 36.8 ± 5.7% is occupied by free space (fossa). Within the popliteal region, the gastrocnemius had a length crossing above the knee joint line of 5.4 ± 1.2 cm, which would likely result in a posterior pull on the femur during muscular contraction. Data provide an in-depth description of length and width morphology of the gastrocnemius and provide a detailed comparison between the medial and lateral heads of the muscle. Our results agree with earlier reports in the literature which suggest that the medial head is significantly longer and wider than the lateral head of the gastrocnemius. The medial head length was 23 ± 3.4 cm, compared to a lateral head length of 20.5 ± 2.9 cm. The medial head maximum width was 5.5 ± 1.6 cm, compared to a lateral head maximum width of 4.2 ± 1.1 cm. Conclusion: This research expands on past descriptions of the femoral origin of the gastrocnemius muscle’s medial head and confirms past descriptions of the lateral head origin on the femur. Our data clearly illustrate that the femoral attachment of the medial head of the gastrocnemius was much different (or more complex) than previously described and that it wraps around the posterior side of the medial femoral condyle and attaches more anteriorly. Further research should be directed at exploring the functional significance (if any) of these differences and examining the effect they may have on ACL function and knee joint kinematics.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3040020

Authors: Micaela Motzko Makayla M. Swancutt Edwin Glueck Brandalynn Holland Anna Stock Zubeen Azari Elif Diricanli Jennifer F. Dennis Melissa Zolnierz

Pelvic organ prolapse impacts an increasing number of women in the United States. The standard approach to correcting apical pelvic organ prolapse uses the sacral anterior longitudinal ligament (SALL) to lift the vaginal apex; however, this approach may result in recurrent prolapse. A newer procedure utilizes the pectineal ligament (PL), which may be a more reliable anchor point. This study compares the biomechanical properties of these two ligaments to elucidate which can withstand more stress to provide long-term stability following prolapse. Seventeen formalin-embalmed donors were used (PL: 17 right, 16 left; SALL, 15). The PL was evaluated to better characterize the ligament’s properties within the pelvis using digital calipers and descriptive statistics. Mean values were statistically evaluated using an independent t test (p = 0.05) but no differences in laterality were appreciable. The PL and SALL samples were harvested and evaluated using a mechanical tester to determine their force at failure (N), toughness (Jm−2), and elastic modulus (MPa). The PL had increased values in the mean force at failure and toughness than the SALL when evaluated by each side as well as a combined mean value. These differences were statistically significant (p = 0.05) for toughness as evaluated using an independent t-test (right, p = 0.004; left, p = 0.005; combined, p = 0.002) and force at failure [right, p = 0.001 (independent t-test); left, p = 0.004 and combined, p = 0.005 (Mann–Whitney U test)], indicating that the PL may permit more deformation, but greater resistance to catastrophic failure as compared to the SALL. When evaluating any statistical differences in modulus, the individual and combined values were increased for the PL as compared to the SALL but were not significant (right, p = 0.290; left, p = 0.143; combined, p = 0.110) suggesting a stiffer material that may be more prone to catastrophic failure once a tear has begun. Collectively, these inherent biomechanical properties of the pectineal ligament indicate the ligament may be a more reliable anchor point for pelvic organ prolapse repair than the SALL.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3040019

Authors: Mason Nolan Ethan Marting James Applegate Conor Wood Sarah Willard Morgan Turnow Benjamin C. Taylor

The fabella is a rare sesamoid bone found within the posterior aspect of the knee joint. Patients can suffer from fabella syndrome which is characterized as pain with extension of the knee, ultimately limiting motion and causing a clicking or catching sensation. There is debate in the literature regarding operative excision versus nonoperative management for patients with fabella syndrome. This review seeks to provide a comprehensive overview of fabella anatomy and fabella syndrome presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3040018

Authors: Moses Barima Djimatey Abdul-Rahim Abubakar Augustina Angelina Sylverken Theophilus Odoom Braimah Baba Abubakari John Akwasi Ohemeng Gowri Yale Frederic Lohr Luke Gamble Anita Mahadevan

Introduction: Rabies remains a significant global threat, yet accurate estimations of its impact are hindered by the lack of confirmatory diagnoses. Postmortem diagnosis of rabies traditionally involves invasive brain tissue testing, a process met with resistance from deceased patients’ families, impeding consent. This paper presents and evaluates an innovative yet unpublished transnasal approach for postmortem brain tissue collection, offering a minimally invasive, easier, faster, and safer method. This method preserves the cadaver’s integrity, potentially easing family reluctance towards autopsies. The limited testing of both human and animal rabies in Ghana highlights the challenges in diagnosing this fatal disease. Scarce diagnostic resources and the complexity of obtaining brain tissue samples exacerbate the issue. Cultural and religious beliefs surrounding autopsies contribute to familial hesitation, as families view these procedures as disruptive and disfiguring, further complicating consent. Methodology: The transnasal technique involves approaching the brain tissue through the nostrils and cribriform plate without any superficial manipulation of the patient’s head and face, thereby preserving the aesthetics and natural features of the person. Results: Technological advancements and seamless One Health collaboration among governmental, non-governmental, and research entities locally and globally have culminated in Ghana’s first confirmed rabies diagnosis using this method of brain tissue collection. This success emphasizes the efficiency and feasibility of the transnasal brain collection approach and the invaluable role of the One Health approach and collaborative efforts in overcoming diagnostic challenges in rabies control.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3030017

Authors: Sandeep Silawal Gundula Schulze-Tanzil

Several terminologies exist for a vestigial muscle connecting the clavicle to the cervical vertebrae; however, “levator claviculae muscle” and “cleidocervical muscle” are commonly found in the contemporary literature. The term “levator claviculae” does not determine the location of the superior insertion point, but rather describes a single function of the muscle. However, similar to the sternocleidomastoid muscle, the bilateral presence of this muscle could result not only in increased strength for elevating the clavicle, but also in enhanced neck flexion and greater neck stability. To provide anatomical precision, the muscle could be more accurately termed the cleidocervical muscle. This literature review was performed using “PubMed” as the search engine. Mesh terms such as levator AND claviculae, cleidocervicalis, cleidocervical, cleidoatlanticus, and cleidotrachelian were used. Our proposal for a precise methodology in addressing the terminology would be as follows: [Position 1: cleidocervical muscle] [Position 2: vertebra levels]. In this opinion paper, we advocate for the anatomical community to discontinue the use of the term “levator claviculae” and instead adopt the more appropriate “cleidocervical muscle” in academic discourse.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3030016

Authors: Lindsey Koper Rachell L. Quarles Janine M. Ziermann-Canabarro Tashanti Bridgett Paola Correa-Alfonzo Sulman J. Rahmat

During anatomical dissection of a female body donor at the Howard University College of Medicine, a rare renal anomaly was discovered. Detailed anatomical and histological analyses on this anomaly were compared to a normal kidney from another donor and previously published reports from a comprehensive literature review. Anatomical assessment confirmed the condition of pancake kidney, a rare form of completely fused, ectopic kidneys without an isthmus. Due to the lack of symptoms in patients with this condition and the limited number of published case reports, very little information is available regarding the anatomy, development, and histology of pancake kidneys, making it difficult to determine an accurate estimate of the number of individuals who are affected. In the case presented here, a single kidney was located in the pelvis, below the bifurcation of the abdominal aorta into the common iliac arteries. The histological analysis of the pancake kidney revealed focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, dilated renal tubules, and increased interstitial fluid, all common characteristics of renal disease and not present in the normal kidney of the other donor. Future studies are needed to compare the histology of pancake kidneys and typical kidneys in order to help determine potential pathologies.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3030015

Authors: Aaron L. Graves Charles R. Marchese Bradley A. Creamer Jennifer F. Dennis

Limited reports have evaluated the utility of the popliteal vein (PV) specific to cannulation. The objective of this study was to characterize the diameter and length of the PV to evaluate this area as a potential cannulation site. The popliteal region in 23 formalin-embalmed, prosected donors was dissected, and the PV was exposed from the adductor hiatus (AH) superiorly to the small saphenous vein (SSV) inferiorly. The diameter of the popliteal vein was measured at the AH, SSV, and half of the distance from the AH to the SSV (MID) using a brass plumb bob. The length of the PV was measured to the AH, SSV, MID, and femoral condyles (FCs). Overall, the mean diameters and mean lengths for the combined population were calculated, as well as individual limbs (right, left) and anatomical sex. Univariate analysis used to evaluate differences in mean diameter and length measurements based on anatomical sex revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) for both diameter and length at all the landmarks evaluated. Multivariate analysis of PV diameter at the AH and SSV landmarks was statistically significant (p < 0.05) when laterally and anatomical comparing sex. These data provide full characterization of the PV in support of its utility in vascular access.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3030014

Authors: Charles R. Marchese Aaron L. Graves Benjamin J. Pautler David Dye Bradley A. Creamer Jennifer F. Dennis

Variations of the sciatic nerve and piriformis muscle (SN-PM) relationship must be considered when discussing orthopedic procedures within the region as they may cause increased risk of SN injuries. Thirty-one formalin-embalmed, prosected donors were evaluated using the Beaton and Anson (B&A) classification system (1939). Major landmarks of the SN-PM relationship were identified, including the posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS), ischial tuberosity (IT), greater trochanter (GT), and the middle of the SN as it exits under the PM (S1). Distances measured included: PSIS-IT, PSIS-GT, IT-GT, PSIS-S1, IT-S1, GT-S1, S1-Q (distance of perpendicular line connecting S1 to PSIS-IT), and S1-R (distance of perpendicular line connecting S1 to PSIS-GT). Measurements from 49 lower extremities were evaluated using a two-tailed t-test to compare by sex and laterality; a one-tailed t-test was utilized to compare groups based on anatomical sex. Six donors displayed asymmetric B&A classifications, demonstrating gross anatomical differences within a single individual; however, no measurements were significant when comparing extremities. Seven measurements were statistically significant (p < 0.05) between sexes, indicating notable sex-based differences. These data highlight sex-based differences in the SN-PM relationship, as well as consistencies within measurements among extremities, which can be utilized by clinicians when treating male and female patients needing unilateral or bilateral orthopedic procedures or injections within the gluteal region.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3030013

Authors: Christophe Casteleyn Marinus Cornelis Vissers Jaco Bakker

The rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) is one of the most frequently used primate species in biomedical research. As a common animal model used to study human disease, the validation of the obtained research data depends on a solid understanding of rhesus monkey anatomy. Unfortunately, the number of anatomical studies on the rhesus monkey is low. Moreover, the available anatomical books and atlases are outdated. For example, no color photographs—only line drawings—are presented. Luckily, renewed interest in rhesus monkey anatomy has been observed. The present study builds upon a recently published manuscript on the topographical anatomy of the thoracic limb of the rhesus monkey. More specifically, the musculature of the rhesus monkey hand is described using full-color anatomical photographs taken during dissections of the hands of three rhesus monkeys. The structures that are visible in the different layers, from the superficial to the deepest layer, are described using veterinary anatomical nomenclature. As expected, the anatomy of the rhesus monkey hand largely parallels human anatomy, which supports the value of the rhesus monkey as animal model. However, some remarkable differences have been identified as well. The present publication could therefore be useful when modeling the human hand (e.g., surgical protocols) using the rhesus monkey.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3030012

Authors: Eileen Luders Christian Gaser Debra Spencer Ajay Thankamony Ieuan Hughes Umasuthan Srirangalingam Helena Gleeson Melissa Hines Florian Kurth

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) has been reported to involve structural alterations in some brain regions. However, it remains to be established whether there is also an impact on the size of the brain as a whole. Here, we compiled the largest CAH sample to date (n = 53), matched pair-wise to a control group (n = 53) on sex, age, and verbal intelligence. Using T1-weighted brain scans, we calculated intracranial volume (ICV) as well as total brain volume (TBV), which are both common estimates for brain size. The statistical analysis was performed using a general linear model assessing the effects of CAH (CAH vs. controls), sex (women vs. men), and any CAH-by-sex interaction. The outcomes were comparable for ICV and TBV, i.e., there was no significant main effect of CAH and no significant CAH-by-sex interaction. However, there was a significant main effect of sex, with larger ICVs and TBVs in men than in women. Our findings contribute to an understudied field of research exploring brain anatomy in CAH. In contrast to some existing studies suggesting a smaller brain size in CAH, we did not observe such an effect. In other words, ICV and TBV in women and men with CAH did not differ significantly from those in controls. Notwithstanding, we observed the well-known sex difference in brain size (12.69% for ICV and 12.50% for TBV), with larger volumes in men than in women, which is in agreement with the existing literature.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3030011

Authors: Marian Simka Joanna Czaja Agata Kawalec

Veins of the lower extremity can be categorized into three hierarchically ordered groups: the epifascial, the interfascial, and the deep ones. In the past, the interfascial veins, e.g., the great saphenous vein, were categorized as superficial veins. But nowadays, experts recommend regarding these veins as a separate group because of their unique topography and clinical relevance. In order to better understand the venous anatomy of the lower limbs, which is highly variable, one should also comprehend their embryological development. Venous embryogenesis in the lower limb consists of three stages. During the first stage the primitive fibular vein is the main vein of the extremity. During the second stage it is replaced by the axial vein and finally by the femoral vein. In some adult individuals this embryonic or fetal venous anatomy is still present. Unfortunately, current anatomical textbooks and atlases, as well as traditional cadaver dissections, are not very useful regarding these issues. Therefore, undergraduate teaching of anatomy can be challenging. New educational tools, such as ultrasonography, seem indispensable to teach the anatomy of these veins properly.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3020010

Authors: Fábio França Vieira e Silva Andrea Ballini Marina Di Domenico María Elena Padín-Iruegas

The pancreas is a vital organ nestled deep within the abdomen, playing a crucial role in both endocrine and exocrine functions. It is elongated and tadpole-shaped, with a head, body, and tail. The intricate connections to adjacent structures through a network of blood vessels, ducts, and supportive tissue transform pancreatic cancer into one of the most fatal malignancies globally as a result of a typically late diagnosis and metastatic form of the disease. Lymph node metastasis (LNM) is prevalent in the majority of individuals diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, signifying a critical factor influencing prognostic outcomes. The para-aortic lymph nodes (PALN) play an important role in the lymphatic drainage of various organs, including the kidneys, pancreas, and parts of the gastrointestinal tract. In pancreatic cancer, the risk of PALN metastasis holds considerable clinical significance, and diagnosing your involvement is primordial to therapeutic decisions and to increase the survival expectations of these patients.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3020009

Authors: Ellen Shakeshaft Matteo Borrini Constantine Eliopoulos

Scoliosis, characterized by an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine, is predominantly idiopathic, underscoring the need to delve into its underlying causes for effective treatment and preventive strategies. This study investigates a potential correlation between scoliosis and Schmorl’s nodes (intervertebral disc herniations) influenced by Wolff’s law, which posits that bones adapt to external pressures. We analyzed CT scans from 108 juvenile decedents, including 56 with scoliosis and 52 without. After running multiple statistical tests, there was no significance between the mean bone density when compared to having scoliosis. An independent t-test provided a t-value of 0.041, which, when compared to the original significance level of 0.05, is statistically significant, although weak. When compared to the Bonferroni correction level of 0.008, it throws out the significance to give a result of not being statistically significant. It was the same in the cases of L3 (t = 0.103), L2 (t = 0.084), and L1 (t = 0.053). If compared to the regular significance level of 0.05, T12 (t = 0.012) and T11 (t = 0.042) had weak significance, but that was then excluded when the Bonferroni correction was applied. When looking at any significance of densities in different vertebral regions, the results from a one-way ANOVA (p-value = 0.213) suggest that it is likely that the results are due to random variability or chance, and that there is no statistical significance. With a value of 0.273 from a Chi-squared (χ2)/Fisher’s exact test, it suggests that there is no statistically significant correlation or difference between the variables of scoliosis and Schmorl’s nodes. The general pattern seems to follow that as the spine ascends, the density increases, and this is true in both scoliotic and non-scoliotic individuals. As a whole, it is evident that those with scoliosis have a lower vertebral density than those without, in all of the vertebral regions. There is, however, a weak negative linear relationship between bone density and age in both scoliotic and non-scoliotic individuals. A p-value of −0.229 obtained from a Pearson correlation coefficient analysis in non-scoliotic individuals, as well as a p-value of −0.069 in scoliotic individuals, was obtained. Overall, the findings of this study are comparable to some existing studies on similar topics, but there are few results that hold statistical significance and so this would be interesting to research further, potentially using a different dataset or a larger sample size that is more representative.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3020008

Authors: Kristina Glenske Asmaa Eldaey Stephanie Schaalo Stefan Arnhold Christian Heiss Reiner Schnettler Sabine Wenisch Mohamed I. Elashry

Bone remodeling is essential for maintaining bone health. The imbalance between bone formation and bone resorption leads to bone diseases such as osteoporosis. Connexin43 (Cx43) is a gap junction molecule that plays an important role in bone homeostasis. The present study investigates the morphological characteristics of bone trabeculae and the distribution of Cx43 in bone cells using osteoporotic rat models to explore the relationship between osteoporosis and bone remodeling. Female Sprague–Dawley rats were divided into three groups: sham, ovarectomy with food deprivation (OVX+diet), and ovarectomy with steroid administration (OVX+steroid) for 3 and 12 months to induce osteoporosis. The lumbar vertebrae were processed for histomorphometric and immunohistochemical evaluation of the trabeculae and the distribution of Cx43 in bone cells. The data showed a significant reduction in trabecular bone in both osteoporotic groups. After 12 months, the OVX+diet treatment resulted in reduced mineralization and an increase in unmineralized bone. The percentage of alkaline phosphatase-positive areas in the OVX+diet vertebrae was lower at 12 months compared to the sham group. A significant increase in tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) positive osteoclasts was observed in the OVX+diet group. Both osteoporotic groups showed a decrease in Cx43-positive osteoblasts areas. An increase in the number of osteoclasts positive for Cx43 was detected in the OVX+diet group. The changes in Cx43 distribution in bone cells, together with trabecular mineralization, suggest that Cx43 may play a role in the progression of osteoporosis and could be a valuable target to improve bone remodeling.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3020007

Authors: Olga Kedo Sebastian Bludau Christian Schiffer Hartmut Mohlberg Timo Dickscheid Katrin Amunts

The mesial piriform region plays a central role in olfaction. Its small size and complex geometry, however, make it a difficult target in functional neuroimaging studies, while histological maps often represent schematic drawings, which are not compatible with requirements for modern imaging. To bridge this gap, cytoarchitectonic analysis and mapping of the region was performed in serial histological sections over their full extent in 10 postmortem brains. The temporobasal areas PirTBd and PirTBv and temporal areas PirTu and PirTit were identified and analyzed. Probabilistic cytoarchitectonic maps of the piriform areas in MNI reference space and high-resolution maps of the amygdala-piriform region on the BigBrain model were calculated as part of the Julich-Brain. Differences in the cytoarchitectonic “texture” of the region were quantified based on the Gray Level Co-Occurrence Matrix. Results showed that allocortical areas were not consistently associated with the rostral Limen insulae, although it was often suggested as a landmark in neuroimaging protocols. PirTu was associated with the uncal tip. PirTit was the largest area, reaching to the temporal pole, with a “temporal” (caudal) and a “temporopolar” (rostral) part having complex neighborhood relationships. The probabilistic maps reflect interindividual variability; they are openly available via the digital EBRAINS platform to serve as an anatomical reference for studies related to olfaction.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3020006

Authors: Marco de Feo Frédéric Dilu Tamba Anguy Makaka Mutondo Gracia Kashitu Mujinga Opiyo Stephen Odong Chiara Castellani Luca Pavesi Patrick I. Mpingabo Steve Ahuka-Mundeke Silvia Di Agostino

Odontogenic bone tumor (OT) is a rare pathology in the world, but it is very common in developing countries; its etiology is still unknown, and it causes serious deformities of the mandible and maxilla if it is not operated upon soon. Lassa virus (LASV) belongs to the Arenaviridae family, and its reservoir is a rodent of the genus Mastomys. The transmission of the LASV to humans can occur through ingestion or inhalation by contact with dirty objects, the consumption of contaminated food, or exposure to wounds, as rodents shed the virus in their urine and excrement. In this observational study, we aim to evaluate the presence of LASV in OT patient tissues collected in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. For this purpose, a group of nine patients affected by OT were enrolled, and the tissues derived from the surgery were collected. In total, 81.5% of the tissues were positive for LASV presence. Interestingly, we found that not only was the tumor LASV-positive, but in some cases, the bone was close to the tumor and the oral mucosa lining. These preliminary data could suggest the hypothesis that LASV may be involved with the onset of OT.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3010005

Authors: Gianfranco Natale Francesco Fornai

Anatomy is still considered the most ancient and basic discipline in the medical sciences [...]

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3010004

Authors: Günter Clemen Uwe Kierdorf Michael Hermes Horst Kierdorf

We studied the regeneration of orthotopic and heterotopic tails in larval axolotls. First, we analyzed tail regeneration following reciprocal exchange of cuffs of tail integument between dark-colored (wild-type) and yellow-colored (hybrid) larval animals. Second, we studied tail regeneration in larval axolotls following transplantation of cuffs of tail integument from metamorphosed dark-colored conspecifics and from an adult fire salamander. In all cases, the amputation planes involved the transplanted integumental cuffs. In the first experiment, the regenerated tails showed the color of the host animals, not that of the transplanted cuffs. This suggests that the melanocytes of the regenerated tails were derived from the host hypodermis. Following transplantation of metamorphosed skin from axolotls and a fire salamander onto larval axolotls, the metamorphosed epidermis reverted to a larval condition. This indicates that the state of differentiation of the metamorphosed epidermis was not permanent. Rather, in order to maintain the metamorphosed epidermal structure, a continuous exposure of the animals to sufficient levels of thyroid hormones was required. Transplantation of tail buds from yellow-colored onto dark-colored axolotl embryos caused the formation of yellow-colored tails both in the head and the anterior limb region of the hosts. Incomplete resection of these heterotopic tails was followed by tail regeneration, while no tail regeneration occurred following complete resection of the heterotopic tails. Successful tail regeneration depended on the presence of neural tissue along the resection plane.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3010003

Authors: Hakija Bečulić Emir Begagić Amina Džidić-Krivić Ragib Pugonja Belma Jaganjac Melica Imamović-Bošnjak Edin Selimović Amila Čeliković Rasim Skomorac Alma Efendić Fahrudin Alić Anes Mašović Selma Terzić-Salihbašić Lejla Tandir-Lihić Mirza Pojskić

This study explores the anatomical relationship between iliac blood vessels and the lower lumbar spine during supine and prone patient positions. The average height of participants was 174.02 cm ± 9.01, while the average weight was 80.38 kg ± 13.48. Body mass index (BMI) analyses showed differences (p = 0.002), with 34.7% classified as normal weight, 53.1% as overweight, and 12.2% as moderately obese. The study examined the distances between iliac arteries and veins in relation to intervertebral anterior and posterior disc contours. Patient positioning significantly affected these measurements at both L4/L5 and L5/S1 levels. The findings highlight the critical influence of body position on anatomical relationships in the context of lower lumbar spine surgery. The study underscores the importance of preoperative awareness of vascular anatomy to prevent iatrogenic lesions during spine surgery, contributing valuable insights for optimizing surgical approaches and minimizing complications in spine surgery, particularly microdiscectomy.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3010002

Authors: Eric Lassiter Julia M Keating Kristina Tarter Kylie Saxton Sanjana Yerubandi Safa Habib Brianna Bailey Adel Maklad

The ansa cervicalis (AC) is a neural loop within the carotid triangle of the anterior neck. The loop is traditionally formed by nerve roots C1–C3 of the cervical plexus and extends multiple motor branches. The current case was discovered during a routine dissection as an anatomical variation of the right AC in an 86-year-old Caucasian male cadaver. In this variation, the C1 nerve root did not form the typical loop with the C2 and C3 nerve roots, but instead, remained independent, traveling deep to the superior belly of the omohyoid muscle to supply the sternothyroid muscle. Because no loop was formed, the anatomy of the current case was not an ansa according to the Latin origin of the word, meaning handle or loop. The AC is an important anatomical landmark within the neck and is implicated in laryngeal reinnervation and respiratory nerve stimulation for patients with sleep apnea. The current anatomical variant contributes to a relatively limited catalog of identified anomalies. Knowledge of new AC variations can guide future surgical interventions and further develop the current base of knowledge surrounding the neuromuscular structures of the head and neck.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia3010001

Authors: Esther Lichtenauer Koen Santifort Dorien Willems Vicente Aige-Gil Niklas Bergknut

Vertebral and spinal cord anomalies are well known in veterinary medicine. However, nerve root anomalies are seldomly reported. In human patients, nerve root anomalies can cause back pain and radicular pain. In human medicine, nerve root anomalies are more often found in cadaveric studies than in imaging studies, representing the lack of advanced imaging in the past and the unawareness about these pathologies. Additionally, nerve root anomalies can mimic other pathologies in imaging studies. It is important to know about the anatomy of the individual patient not only for correctly localizing the pathology but also for surgical planning and to prevent iatrogenic trauma to the patient. Conjoined nerve roots are a type of nerve root anomaly described in human medicine and are defined as two nerve roots that either share a common dural envelope at some point during their course from the dural sac or that have their origin very close together in the dural sac. In humans, lumbosacral nerve roots are most commonly conjoined, and signs of pain may be associated with this anomaly. We report the magnetic resonance imaging finding of right-sided conjoined L7 and S1 nerve roots in a dog that presented with lumbosacral hyperesthesia. We postulate that it is possible that the conjoined nerve roots played a role in the clinical signs of this dog. This is an anomaly that has not been reported before in veterinary medicine.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2040033

Authors: Luis-Alfonso Arráez-Aybar Concepción Reblet José Luis Bueno-López

This article delves into the life and accomplishments of Juan Valverde de Amusco (c. 1525–c. 1587), a Spanish anatomist. Specifically, it focuses on his book titled HISTORIA de la composición del cuerpo humano. The book was the first anatomy opus published after Andreas Vesalius’ De humani corporis fabrica libri septem, written in a Romance language, the Castilian Spanish language, making it the most renowned post-Vesalian anatomy book in Europe and beyond during the 16th and 17th centuries. Compiling complete editions and reproductions of figures, it had 19 editions and several translations. One of its principal contributions was the initial graphical representation of the stapes ossicle. It provided the first accurate description of the pulmonary circulation, vomer bone, and four extraocular rectus muscles. Throughout the book, Valverde corrected numerous of Vesalius’ anatomical observations. HISTORIA de la composición del cuerpo humano was the first anatomy book to use chalcographic illustrations, which are of superior anatomical quality than those printed from engraved wood in Andreas Vesalius’ book. Next, many anatomy textbooks of that time incorporated Valverde’s book illustrations. Valverde’s book was practical, timely, and well referenced, making it a valuable resource for scholars and non-scholars. The conclusion is that Juan Valverde de Amusco merits a place as a pioneer in scientific knowledge transfer.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2040032

Authors: Frits C. de Beer Harry W. Steinbusch

The primary afferent system in the rat’s spinal cord starts to develop in the third last week of gestation. First, the pseudounipolar DRG neurons extend their centripetal long primary axons, targeting rostral supra-segmental nuclei in the spinal cord. Meanwhile, the subsequent innervation of the juxta- and intra-segmental spinal levels enables the three subdivisions to commence integrating a complex network with the body periphery. This process may continue to refine and adapt the system life-long. The experimental data elucidated the steps involved in developing the cytoarchitecture by separating the axons of the long and intermediate subdivisions from the short subdivision. Here, we present a blueprint of the features of the long primary afferent axons developing in sequential waves. The pioneering long afferent axons targeted the dorsal gracile nuclei at spring tide and Clarke’s nuclei at neap tide in ventrally bent trajectories. The paradigm’s myelotomy blocked these pioneering fibers from stepping down the developmental cascade, rendering an unknown phenotype. This reflected a hypothetical transition hub stationed on the assembly line, delineating a critical period. The paradigm also affected the neuropil’s ripening independently from the long primary afferent system. The data disclosed that fetal hyposaturation yielded an in vivo genomic engineering capability. Fetal tissue was susceptible to hyposaturation, showing remarkable versatility early in fetal life. The translational impact may favor research into the elusive etiology of clinical syndromes concerning the afferent system relating to fetal hyposaturation.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2040031

Authors: Mateo V. Torres Irene Ortiz-Leal Pablo Sanchez-Quinteiro

This review addresses the role of chemical communication in mammals, giving special attention to the vomeronasal system in pheromone-mediated interactions. The vomeronasal system influences many social and sexual behaviors, from reproduction to species recognition. Interestingly, this system shows greater evolutionary variability compared to the olfactory system, emphasizing its complex nature and the need for thorough research. The discussion starts with foundational concepts of chemocommunication, progressing to a detailed exploration of olfactory systems. The neuroanatomy of the vomeronasal system stands in contrast with that of the olfactory system. Further, the sensory part of the vomeronasal system, known as the vomeronasal organ, and the integration center of this information, called the accessory olfactory bulb, receive comprehensive coverage. Secondary projections of both the olfactory and vomeronasal systems receive attention, especially in relation to the dual olfactory hypothesis. The review concludes by examining the organization of the vomeronasal system in four distinct mammalian groups: rodents, marsupials, herpestids, and bovids. The aim is to highlight the unique morphofunctional differences resulting from the adaptive changes each group experienced.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2040030

Authors: Serghei Covantsev Oleg Arnaut Karina Mulaeva Olga Belic

Introduction: Renal lobulation (also known as fetal or embryonic lobulation) is a rare variation during development in which renal lobules have a visible anatomical space between them, and this can be seen in 0.5–4% of adults. Material and methods: this study was conducted on 54 human kidneys from patients who died due to causes unrelated to renal pathology which were fixed in a 10% formaldehyde solution and then carefully dissected. Results: The group with fetal lobulation (n = 16) was associated with a length M = 9.89 (SD = 0.6, p = 0.15). By comparison, the kidneys without lobulation (n = 38) were associated with a numerically longer length M = 10.29 (SD = 0.607, p = 0.098). To test the hypothesis that lobulation is associated with a statistically significant different length a Mann–Whitney test was performed, which indicated that the length of the kidneys is smaller in scase of lobulation U = 198, Z = −2.04, p = 0.04. Cross-tabulation also demonstrated that kidney lobulation may be influenced by the presence of polar arteries with r = 0.41 (p < 0.02). The likelihood ratio was 7.28, df 1, p = 0.003, with an odds ratio of 6.857 (CI 95% = 1.84–25.61). Logistic regression analysis demonstrated that kidneys with lobulation were 6.85 times more likely to have polar arteries than kidneys without lobulation. Conclusions: the data from our research indicate that even though no pathological conditions have been linked with lobulated kidneys, the incidence of vascular variations (specifically polar arteries) is higher when there is persistent fetal lobulation.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2040029

Authors: Florian Kurth Eileen Luders

It is unclear whether differences between the two brain hemispheres become larger or smaller with increasing age. Given that the hippocampus is particularly susceptible to age-related changes, here, we set out to investigate the correlation between chronological age and hippocampal asymmetry, both for the hippocampal complex as a whole and in cytoarchitectonically defined subregions (cornu ammonis 1, 2, 3, dentate gyrus, subiculum, and entorhinal cortex). We analyzed T1-weighted data of the brain from a sample of 725 healthy individuals (406 women/319 men) spanning a wide age range (36–100 years) from The Lifespan Human Connectome Project in Aging. Correlations between the absolute asymmetry index and chronological age were positive for all six subregions and also for the hippocampal complex as a whole, albeit effects the effects were not significant for the dentate gyrus. This suggests that, overall, hippocampal asymmetry increases with increasing age (i.e., the left and right hippocampi become more different over time). Given that the subregions of the hippocampal complex serve different brain functions, follow-up research is needed to explore the functional implications within the framework of brain aging. In addition, longitudinal studies will be necessary to confirm the observed cross-sectional effects.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2040028

Authors: Jihad S. Hawi Rosalyn A. Jurjus Hisham S. Daouk Maya N. Ghazi Charbel A. Basset Francesco Cappello Inaya Hajj Hussein Angelo Leone Abdo R. Jurjus

Background: Anatomical variations and, in particular, arterial variations constitute an important chapter in the learning of Clinical Anatomy. Purpose: The purpose of this report is to describe a rare bilateral anatomical variation in the internal thoracic artery (ITA) in a 60-year-old corpse and to depict its extreme clinical importance in coronary artery bypass surgery. Methods: The rare bilateral aberrant branches of the internal thoracic artery and their course in the thorax were incidentally discovered during routine anatomy dissection of the thorax at the Faculty of Medicine and Medical Sciences of the University of Balamand. The findings were thoroughly documented using digital photography, and the dissection followed the instructions from the “16th Edition of Grant’s Dissector”. Results: In the observed case, the left aberrant branch of ITA descends laterally and gives medial and lateral anterior intercostal branches at the first six intercostal spaces. Conversely, the right aberrant artery, which branches from the ITA, descends laterally and gives medial and lateral branches to every intercostal space in the first five intercostal spaces. Conclusion: This report emphasizes that any unexpected variations in the lateral aberrant branches of the internal thoracic artery may complicate the surgical procedure. Bilateral aberrant lateral branches of the internal thoracic artery constitute rare anatomical variations of the internal thoracic artery and have been rarely reported in the literature. Such a course for aberrant lateral branches in the thorax poses possible lethal complications during several procedures involving the thorax, including basic coronary artery bypass graft, thoracocentesis and intercostal paracentesis and breast reconstruction.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2040027

Authors: Sandy Figiel Géraldine Cancel-Tassin Ian G. Mills Alastair D. Lamb Gaelle Fromont Olivier Cussenot

Understanding prostate carcinogenesis is crucial not only for identifying new treatment targets but also for developing effective strategies to manage the asymptomatic form of the disease. There is a lack of consensus about predicting the indolent form of the disease prostate cancer, leading to uncertainties regarding treatment initiation. This review aims to enhance the assessment and management of early prostate cancer by providing a comprehensive picture of the molecular anatomy of the prostate, synthesising current evidence, highlighting knowledge gaps, and identifying future directions. It presents evidence for the efficacy of active surveillance as an alternative treatment strategy and its potential benefits in specific patient groups through androgen receptor disruption. Overall, an improved understanding of prostate carcinogenesis and its molecular underpinnings can pave the way for tailored and precise management approaches for this common cancer. Further development and validation of molecule-based assessment tools are needed. Integrating genomic, proteomic, and phenotypic models, as well as functional approaches, can help predict outcomes. This facilitates selecting candidates for active surveillance and targeting interventions for higher-risk cases, contributing to more precise management strategies.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2030026

Authors: Kathleen H. Miao Julia H. Miao

Femoral shaft fractures (FSFs) are common orthopedic injuries, often resulting from high-energy trauma such as motor vehicle collisions, low-energy trauma, osteoporosis, or pathological conditions. They account for a significant portion of long bone fractures. Radiologic imaging plays a pivotal role in the diagnosis of these fractures, providing crucial information about fracture characteristics, associated injuries, and successful treatment and management planning. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the anatomy, pathophysiology, and classification systems of FSFs. Diagnostic imaging modalities, including radiograph, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and their essential roles are highlighted, driving treatment and management as well as prognosis for FSFs and illuminating the anatomical considerations that influence the choice of approach and fixation techniques. Radiological diagnosis and imaging of FSFs are vital for orthopedic surgeons, radiologists, and healthcare professionals involved in the care of patients with these injuries and optimizing patient outcomes.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2030025

Authors: Varna Taranikanti Cameron J. Davidson

Medical educators face many challenges instructing future medical students, specifically in the integration of learning technologies. To overcome these challenges, educators must implement learner-centered and interactive teaching strategies. Anatomical sciences are the cornerstone of medical education and provide the bedrock to layer conceptual understanding of the human body. With the “medical knowledge boom”, most medical schools have reduced the curricular time for anatomy instruction, resulting in a paucity of knowledge and issues incorporating anatomical knowledge in clinical scenarios. Modern pedagogical techniques combining AI chatbots with concurrent metacognitive frameworks can foster a deeper understanding of anatomical knowledge and analysis of clinical cases. Student reflection on the learning process allows for monitoring their progress and tailoring of learning strategies to their specific capabilities and needs. A.I. technology can aid in scaffolding knowledge with practical applications via iterative and immediate feedback in case- or problem-based learning formats. The use of textual conversations actively engages students and simulates conversations with instructors. In this communication, we advocate for the incorporation of AI technologies fused with a metacognitive framework as a medium to foster increased critical thinking and skill development that enhances comprehension. These skills are important for medical students’ lifelong learning process.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2030024

Authors: Jarosław Sobolewski Maciej Zdun

Ludwig Henry Bojanus was born on 16 July 1776 in Buchsweiler, Alsace. After studying in Jena and Vienna, L. H. Bojanus enrolled at the University of Jena for his doctoral studies. Bojanus’s scientific activities are closely associated with Vilnius, where he was a professor of veterinary medicine from 1806 (he was elected to this position in 1804). In 1815, he became a professor of comparative anatomy. These were the times of the greatest flourishing of Vilnius University, where the foundations of modern Polish science were being laid. At Vilnius University, he established a technical and anatomical-pathological office for the zoo, a veterinary clinic and a model forge for shoeing horses in 1823. Bojanus founded a veterinary school in Vilnius and drew up a plan for a veterinary institute, which was not opened until 1832, simultaneously with the opening of the medico-surgical academy. He became known as one of Europe’s most prominent anatomists and zoologists. A lasting memorial to the scientist is the monograph “Anatomy of the Tortoise”, which many scholars still point to today as a model of accurate and precise anatomical research. He was the first to identify the anatomical differences between the European bison (Bos bonasus) and the aurochs (Bos primigenius). In his lectures on comparative anatomy, Bojanus presented the principle of uninterrupted development. He can be described as one of the most decisive and consistent evolutionists before Darwin. He died in 1827.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2030023

Authors: Johannes Kläger Gabriel Wasinger André Oszwald Eva Compérat

Tumor staging of prostate cancer is a fundamental principle in management and therapy, with a hallmark being tumor growth beyond the organ boundary. Often, this is referred to as “capsule penetration”, suggesting the existence of a true prostatic capsule that would facilitate the determination of tumor penetration. In fact, the prostate does not have a true capsule and, depending on the anatomic area, it blends with the surrounding fibrous, adipose and muscular tissue. This makes it sometimes difficult or impossible to unequivocally identify extraprostatic tumor extension. It is necessary to appreciate this difficulty in order to better understand the significance of extraprostatic tumor extension.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2030022

Authors: Hakija Bečulić Emir Begagić Rasim Skomorac Aldin Jusić Edin Selimović Lejla Čejvan Mirza Pojskić

Intraorbital and transorbital injuries are included in the group of head injuries with low frequency. In particular, such injuries rarely result in infectious processes in the brain parenchyma. This case presents a case where a 57-year-old man reported to the neurosurgery department that he had sustained an injury to the conjunctiva of the upper eyelid a month earlier. The patient was injured by a tree branch, which he removed on his own initiative. After persistent eye abduction palsy, an MRI was performed, which showed a compressive mass in the frontal lobe of the brain. A surgical procedure was indicated, which found a piece of twig 3 mm long inside the abscess. Surgical intervention and antibiotic therapy led to the complete recovery of the patient.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2030021

Authors: Olivier Cussenot Ruth Macpherson Tom Leslie Luca Lunelli Giancarlo Marra Marc Laniado Freddie C. Hamdy Richard J. Bryant

Irreversible electroporation (IRE) is a recent and minimally invasive method of partial prostate ablation. However, knowledge of the essential landmarks of prostate anatomy is crucial to achieving safe and effective partial ablation by IRE. High-quality imaging of the prostate is essential before the procedure. The individual morphological pattern of the prostate must be taken into account and detailed mapping with measurement of the lesion is necessary to determine optimal needle placement. The entire tumour volume must be covered while ensuring the safety of critical anatomical structures such as the rectum, urethra, nerve bundles and sphincter muscle.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2030020

Authors: Nicolas Rouleau Nirosha J. Murugan

Tissue engineering is a powerful tool with which to systematically identify the determinants of biological functions. Applied to the design and fabrication of biomimetic brains, tissue engineering serves to disentangle the complex anatomy of neural circuits and pathways by recapitulating structure-function relationships in simplified model systems. The complex neuroanatomy of the cerebral cortex, with its enigmatic columnar and stratified cytoarchitectonic organization, represents a major challenge toward isolating the minimal set of elements that are required to assemble neural tissues with cognitive functions. Whereas considerable efforts have highlighted important genetic and physical correlates of early cortical tissue patterning, no substantive attempt to identify the determinants of how the cortices acquire their relatively conserved, narrow range of numbered layers is evident in the literature. Similarly, it is not yet clear whether cortical columns and laminae are functionally relevant or epiphenomena of embryonic neurodevelopment. Here, we demonstrate that spatial frequencies (m−1) derived from the width-to-height ratios of cerebral cortical columns predict sinusoids with a narrow range of spatial cycles over the average cortical thickness. The resulting periodicities, denoted by theoretical wavenumbers, reflect the number of observed cortical layers among humans and across several other species as revealed by a comparative anatomy approach. We present a hypothesis that cortical columns and their periodic layers are emergent of the intrinsic spatial dimensions of neurons and their nested, self-similar aggregate structures including minicolumns. Finally, we discuss the implications of periodic tissue patterns in the context of neural tissue engineering.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2030019

Authors: Luis-Alfonso Arráez-Aybar Talía Fuentes-Redondo José-Luis Bueno-López Rafael Romero-Reverón

This article focuses on Jean Cruveilhier and particularly on his book Anatomie descriptive, which was a great success during the author’s lifetime. (Notwithstanding this, it is pertinent to point out that the five editions of Anatomie descriptive were surpassed in number by others of the Cruveilhier’s creations, such as Anatomie pathologique and Traité d’Anatomie pathologique.) Unlike other texts of the time and later, Anatomie descriptive presents the anatomy of the human body in a way that can be applied both by students and medical professionals. The objectives of Anatomie descriptive were to make understand how the functions of an organ can be inferred from its structure, and to encourage students and professionals to investigate the anatomical origin of health and disease phenomena. Depending on which sections of the book, the parts of the body were described with morphological, topographic or functional criteria. Many of Cruveilhier’s contributions influenced anatomical eponymy and keep today’s Terminologia Anatomica alive. All of this has made consider Jean Cruveilhier the most outstanding anatomist in France of the first half of the nineteenth century. Due to the scientific rigor Cruveilhier always applied and asked to be applied in the investigation of the anatomic changes linked to pathological processes, he could certainly be considered a predecessor of the objectivity sought by evidence-based medicine.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2030018

Authors: Ahmed Z. Abdelkarim Ayman R. Khalifa Mohamed G. Hassan Ahmed Abdou Suayip Burak Duman Nader N. Rezallah Abdelrahman Elsaid Abdraboh Ahmed Ghoneima

Clefts of the lip or palate (CLPs) are the most common craniofacial birth defect, with a worldwide incidence of ~1 in 700 live births. The objective of this study is to assess the characteristics of the nasopharyngeal airway in growing vs. non-growing cleft lip/palate subjects and compare them with normal subjects. This retrospective study analyzed eighty-seven scans of three groups from cone beam computed tomography (CBCT). The cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) scans were coded and landmarks were identified using a Dolphin three-dimensional (3D) imaging software server (version 11.7; Patterson Dental Supply, Chatsworth, Calif). All values showed strong measurement reliability (>80), except for the nasopharynx measurement. Regarding gender difference, for the nasopharynx, female subjects (1261.32 ± 713.94) showed the lowest significant values in non-growing unilateral compared to males (6496.8 ± 2987) at p = 0.008. For oropharynx, in the growing bilateral cleft group, male subjects (13,046.79 ± 5521.89) showed a significant difference (p = 0.046) compared to females (8468.98 ± 4279.99). MP-SN, B, A, SNA., SN.B., and ANS-ME showed significant differences for cephalometric parameters (p < 0.05). Despite significant differences in linear and angular measurements, volumetric airway measurements showed no significant differences in the growing groups. For non-growing cleft subjects, the cleft anomaly significantly affected the nasal cavity and left maxillary sinus volumes.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2030017

Authors: Pilar Marcos Rafael Coveñas

The purpose of anatomy is the knowledge of the form of the living body, for which the relationship between what is seen and its function is pursued [...]

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2020016

Authors: William Pérez Sokol Duro Ozan Gündemir

The omasum is the third compartment of the ruminant stomach, which is also considered a water absorption organ and participates in the absorption of volatile fatty acids (VFA), minerals, electrolytes, and fluids. The most important morphological parameter of the omasum is the available absorption area, which depends on the size and number of the omasal laminae, and is variable among different ruminants and based on differences in their daily diets. Optimal omasum development in the transition period to ruminant life can enhance animal performance, so identifying the best diet for this period is crucial for producers. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of two diets based on 8 L of milk replacer with the inclusion of concentrate or forage on the development of the omasum in twenty newborn male Holstein calves divided into two groups. The first group was fed alfalfa hay, and the second was administered a balanced commercial starter feed, both groups ad libitum. After standard dissection of the omasum of both calf groups, the omasal laminae were classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary, and their surface area was calculated. Regarding the number of first-, second-, and third-order laminae, a significant difference was only observed in the number of third-order laminae in favor of the forage-fed group (p = 0.04). The laminar surface area indicated that the area of the primary, secondary, and tertiary sheets, and the total laminar area, were greater in the forage group (p < 0.05). The length of the omasal papillae recorded with the scanning electron microscope showed that the papillae near the ostium reticulo-omasicum tended to be significantly longer in the forage-fed group (p = 0.05). In conclusion, this study demonstrates that significant anatomical differences can be observed between two groups of animals of the same species and rearing stage that were fed with two different diets within a period of less than two months. This highlights the remarkable plasticity and adaptability of the ruminant stomach.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2020015

Authors: Penelope A. Kollarou Lazaros C. Triarhou

The pioneer Swiss naturalist René-Édouard Claparède (1832–1871), professor at the University of Geneva, left important contributions to diverse areas of natural science, biology, and comparative anatomy, including the structure of infusoria, annelids, and earthworms, the evolution of arthropods, and the embryology of spiders. He also published observations on marine invertebrates. This essay presents a brief overview of his academic life and work and makes the distinction from his nephew with the same name, the neurologist and educational psychologist Édouard Claparède (1873–1840).

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2020014

Authors: Joanna Czaja Marcin Skuła Dariusz Kowalczyk Wojciech Redelbach Jacek Hobot Marta Nowak Zenon Halaba Marian Simka

Immersive virtual reality with the use of 3D holography is a new method that is being currently introduced for teaching anatomy, yet the actual educational benefits associated with its use remain unclear. Here, we present our preliminary observations and conclusions after the pilot phase of the study on a 3D holographic human heart. The study was conducted on a group of 96 students of medical faculty. Students were randomly divided into two groups: 57 students who were taught anatomy using traditional methods (plastinated human hearts, anatomical models, and atlases) and 39 students who were taught using 3D holographic hearts. Assessment of knowledge retention of the heart anatomy comprised 3 tests, which were performed 1 week and 3 and 6 months after the classes on heart anatomy. We have found that although anatomical classes with the use of immersive virtual reality were attractive for students; still, unsupervised teaching with the use of 3D holograms was not superior to traditional medical education. Differences between the groups in terms of anatomical knowledge retention were not statistically significant. Results of this pilot study suggest that in order to achieve better knowledge retention and understanding of the anatomy of the heart, classes should be precisely planned and strictly supervised by academic teachers. Moreover, students should get familiar with the use of virtual reality goggles before the classes.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2020013

Authors: Marna S. van der Walt Willem Daffue Jacqueline Goedhals Sean van der Merwe Francois Deacon

The distinctive long neck of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) entails functional difficulties brought about by the extended distance between the heart and the head. Blood must be circulated over 2 m from the heart to the brain against gravitational force. The natural movement of the head to ground level would result in a large volume of blood moving toward the brain with the force of gravity. Large blood volumes also rush to the brain during bulls’ fighting (necking), rendering the giraffe susceptible to possible brain damage. The natural movement of the head from ground level to fully erect would result in blood moving away from the brain with gravitational force. The lack of blood perfusing the brain can cause fainting. The giraffe, however, suffers neither brain damage nor fainting. What adaptations do giraffes have to counteract these challenges? The aim of this study was to investigate the functionality of the rostral epidural rete mirabile situated just beneath the brain and its possible contribution to successful circulation in long-necked giraffes. The unique rostral epidural rete mirabile structure significantly contributes to counteract physiological challenges. Turns and bends characterize this structural arterial meshwork and subsequently an increased artery length through which blood flow must proceed before entrance into the brain, exerting resistance to blood racing to the brain when the head is lowered to the ground. The brain is supplied mainly by the maxillary artery through the carotid rete, with a rudimentary basilar artery not contributing to the brain’s blood supply. The resistance to blood flow due to the structure and position of the rostral epidural rete mirabile when the head is in the upright position is counteracted by the unique carotid-vertebral anastomosis allowing immediate cerebral blood supply. The rostral epidural rete mirabile structure in giraffes is an essential feature balancing physiological difficulties arising due to the extensive heart-to-head distance and might fulfill the same function in other long-necked artiodactyls.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2020012

Authors: Horst Erich König Sokol Duro William Pérez

The objective of this paper was to describe the anatomy of the stifle joint (Articulatio genus) of the pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus, Linnaeus, 1758) by dissection and imaging studies. Twenty-six pelvic limbs were used for gross dissection, and four stifle regions from two animals were used for radiography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The stifle joint of the pampas deer comprised the femoropatellar joint (joint between the distal part of the femur and the patella), and the femorotibial joint joined the femoral condyles to the proximal extremity of the tibia. The general anatomy of the stifle joint, including the overall morphology of the joint with its bones, complementary parts, means of attachment, and anatomical relationships, was like that of other ruminant species of similar size. Imaging techniques such as MRI allow adequate visualization of most components of the stifle joint.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2020011

Authors: Joanna Klansek Keiko Meshida Elizabeth Maynes Maria Ximena Leighton Gary Wind Guinevere Granite

While relatively uncommon, a duplication of the inferior vena cava is moderately well-discussed in the literature. This anatomical variation was noted in a 69-year-old white female donor. This variation is typically asymptomatic; however, it can be associated with complications, such as confusion with a mediastinal mass, increased risk for thromboembolism, and hemorrhage during surgery. It is also associated with a handful of comorbidities, including, but not limited to, congenital renal anomalies such as horseshoe kidney or fused crossed kidney. Research supports that the variation of a duplicated IVC (DIVC) can be due to a failure of the left supracardinal vein to regress during embryonic development.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2010010

Authors: Isabella Penkwitz Gary Wind Elizabeth Maynes Maria Ximena Leighton Guinevere Granite

Forearm extensor muscle variations can be diverse and, in some instances, rare. During a routine anatomical dissection of human cadaveric donors during the 2021 first-year medical gross anatomy course and 2021 graduate nursing advanced anatomy course at the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, bilateral agenesis of the extensor carpi ulnaris muscle was noted in one 70-year-old white male donor. This variation is described as extremely rare in the literature. The presence of an extensor indicis et digiti medii tendon, a variant of the extensor indicis tendon, appeared to be evident in post-dissection photographs on the left hand. The presence of a duplicated extensor indicis proprious tendon appears to be evident on the right hand. However, further inspection of this region was impeded as the body was sent for cremation prior to the variation being identified. The presence of various juncturae tendinum was also noted bilaterally. Reported prevalence of extensor indicis muscle variants ranges from 0.75% to 13%, depending on the specific type or grouping of variations observed. Knowledge of variations in the extensor compartment of the forearm and wrist is crucial for orthopedic surgeons and specialists. Alteration of surgical approaches may be necessary if such a variation is present. Such variations can be options for grafts, resulting in minimal functional change to the grafted area due to the continued existence of other muscles performing similar functions. Knowledge of such variations, and alternative, synonymous names for them, is also important for anatomy instructors, who may need to assist students in identifying these rare variations during anatomical dissection.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2010009

Authors: Caroline Guigou Raabid Hussain Alain Lalande Alexis Bozorg Grayeli

Background: Fundamental knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the inner ear is necessary to understand otologic diseases and therapeutic strategies. Aim: Evaluate the inter- and intraindividual variability of the modiolar position in relation to vestibular landmarks and cranial morphology on computed tomography scans (CT scan). Methods: Thirty CT scans of normal temporal bones (25 adults, 5 children) were analyzed after multiplanar reconstruction (MPR). The measurements for each ear included the angle of each semicircular canal (SCC) made by a line passing through the chosen plane and a line passing between the apex and the ampulla of the SCC studied and the angle of the modiolus in the transverse and sagittal planes. Results: Intraindividual asymmetries with a moderate to good right/left correlation were observed for the lateral SCC in the transverse plane, posterior SCC in the frontal plane, and the superior SCC in the sagittal plane and for the modiolus in the transverse plane. Conclusions: An anatomical variability in the cochlea, independent of other surrounding anatomical elements, seems to exist, but the SCCs seem to remain symmetrical. Significance: The orientation of the modiolus is an important knowledge to acquire during presurgical planning prior to transmodiolar auditory nerve implantation.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2010008

Authors: Elsa-Marie A. Otoo Hannah Leibowitz Oliver Wong Kawal Rhode

Conventional anatomical models and cadaveric specimens can be time-consuming and resource intensive for any anatomical institute. In recent years, there has been a push for more flexible and varied approaches to teaching, including problem-based and computer-aided learning, which includes web-based anatomical models or the use of three-dimensional visualization technology. With advances in hardware, autostereoscopic (AS) 3D screens have become more affordable, portable, and accessible to individuals, not just institutes. At King’s College London (KCL), we developed the Virtual Anatomy and Histology (VAH) platform—an online resource which focuses on perspective volumetric 3D viewing of medical scan data and 3D models to facilitate the online teaching and learning of anatomy. This paper presents the features of VAH and details a study that was conducted in 2022, to evaluate the VAH 3D AS viewer configured with The Looking Glass Portrait (TLG) (Looking Glass, New York, NY, USA) 8-inch AS display. We tested the hypothesis that using an AS display can improve spatial understanding of cardiovascular anatomy. A cardiovascular 3D textured model was used from our gallery to carry out a spatial test. Twenty current healthcare students at King’s participated in the study and completed a structured questionnaire. Results showed that 47.6% and 52.4% of participants agreed and strongly agreed, respectively, that identifying anatomical structures was easier in 3D compared to 2D. Qualitative feedback was positive as most students found King’s VAH and TLG display “useful for people who need help with spatial understanding” and that “it was a good tool to test your anatomical knowledge”. In conclusion, based on the quantitative results and feedback, we are optimistic that King’s VAH and portable AS displays can be beneficial in anatomy education. With the increasing availability of such systems and competitive pricing, this technology is likely to have a significant impact in education in coming years.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2010007

Authors: Alessandra Coli Davide Prinetto Elisabetta Giannessi

A morphological study of the skeletal specimen of Canis lupus L. from an archeological dig of Agnano (Pisa) (Fauna Laboratory, Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Pisa, Italy) that is chronologically placed in the Wurm period (last glaciation) was done to perform an anatomical comparison between this wild ancestor and osteological specimens of Canis familiaris L. present in the Veterinary Anatomy Museum (University of Pisa). Marked morphological differences in the splanchnocranium (nasal bone, zygomatic arch and orbital angle), neurocranium (sagittal crest) and temporomandibular joint (due to different developments of the masticatory muscles) are highlighted on the wolf specimen compared to those in the domestic dog specimens present in Museum. The appendicular skeletal bones of the wolf show anatomical features similar to those of dog bone specimens, confirming their belonging to the same family (Canidae). This result confirms that domestication has almost exclusively affected the anatomical features of the skull that have changed due to the difference in dietary approach between wolves and dogs.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2010006

Authors: Selenia Miglietta Giuseppe Familiari Michela Relucenti Stefania Basili Fabiano Bini Gabriele Bove Claudio Barbaranelli Pietro Familiari

The Locomotor System Anatomy (LSA) course, placed in the first semester of the first year of the new Master’s degree in Medicine and Surgery High Technology (MSHT) at the Sapienza University of Rome, was integrated with surgical and bioengineering content. This study investigated the educational value and the students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of these two types of integration, comparing surgical integration (SI) with engineering integration (EI). Anatomy knowledge and students’ opinions attending the LSA course in MSHT degree (n = 30) were compared with those of students (n = 32) attending another medical and surgery course not comprising EI. Data show that students in the MSHT course like in-depth SI much more than in-depth EI. However, those who like in-depth SI also like in-depth EI. Significant differences were in anatomy knowledge between the two groups in the three sections of the test. There was no significant correlation between the three test scores and the levels of liking, while there was a significant correlation between students liking SI and those liking EI. A statistically significant correlation was also found in students who correctly responded to questions on the head and trunk, with students responding correctly to questions on the upper limbs. This study will be important in optimizing the deepening of SI and EI in the LSA course.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2010005

Authors: Carlos Hernández-Pérez Eduardo Weruaga David Díaz

The cerebellum is an encephalic region classically known for its central role in the control of movement, although recent research has revealed its involvement in other cognitive and affective tasks. Several different pathologies are known to affect this structure, causing a wide range of behavioral and gait impairments. Intriguingly, although the neurodegenerative factors affect all Purkinje cells of the cerebellum uniformly, certain neurodegeneration patterns can be distinguished, in which some Purkinje cells persist longer than other cell types. Specifically, there is a cerebellar region, lobe X, which is more resistant to different types of neurodegeneration, regardless of the injury. Degeneration patterns of the cerebellum have been described in several models, but this review goes further, as it aims at describing a phenomenon not so described: the resistance of the lobe X to neurodegeneration. For this purpose, the main models of cerebellar degeneration will be reviewed and a common origin for the lobe X resistance will be sought.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2010004

Authors: Wieslaw L. Nowinski

Human brain atlases are tools to gather, present, use, and discover knowledge about the human brain. The developments in brain atlases parallel the advances in neuroanatomy. The brain atlas evolution has been from hand-drawn cortical maps to print atlases to digital platforms which, thanks to tremendous advancements in acquisition techniques and computing, has enabled progress in neuroanatomy from gross (macro) to meso-, micro-, and nano-neuroanatomy. Advances in neuroanatomy have been feasible because of introducing new modalities, from the initial cadaveric dissections, morphology, light microscopy imaging and neuroelectrophysiology to non-invasive in vivo imaging, connectivity, electron microscopy imaging, genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics, and epigenomics. Presently, large and long-term brain projects along with big data drive the development in micro- and nano-neuroanatomy. The goal of this work is to address the relationship between neuroanatomy and human brain atlases and, particularly, the impact of these atlases on the understanding, presentation, and advancement of neuroanatomy. To better illustrate this relationship, a brief outline on the evolution of the human brain atlas concept, creation of brain atlases, atlas-based applications, and future brain-related developments is also presented. In conclusion, human brain atlases are excellent means to represent, present, disseminate, and support neuroanatomy.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2010003

Authors: Anatomia Editorial Office Anatomia Editorial Office

High-quality academic publishing is built on rigorous peer review [...]

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2010002

Authors: Natascha Leitzig Sonja Janssen Hany Kayed Stefan O. Schönberg Hans Scheffel

This study evaluates ultra-low-dose computed tomography (ULDCT) protocols concerning the detectability of pulmonary nodules. The influence of tube current settings, kernels, strength levels of third-generation iterative reconstruction algorithms, and pitch was investigated. A chest phantom with artificial spherical nodules of different densities and diameters was examined with a third-generation dual-source CT. Scanning and post-processing protocols, tube current levels, and ultra-high and non-high pitch modes were applied. Images were reconstructed with filtered back-projection (FBP) or advanced model-based iterative reconstruction (ADMIRE) algorithms. Sharp (Bl57) or medium-soft (Br36) convolution kernels were applied. The reading was performed by an experienced and an inexperienced reader. The highest observer sensitivity was found using a non-high pitch protocol at tube currents of 120 mAs and 90 mAs with the sharp kernel and iterative reconstruction level of 5. Non-high pitch protocols showed better detectability of solid nodules. Combinations with the medium-soft kernel achieved slightly higher observer sensitivity than with the sharp kernel. False positives (FP) occurred more often for subsolid nodules, at a tube current level of 120 mAs, and with the sharp kernel. A tube current level of 90 mAs combined with the highest iterative reconstruction level achieved the highest accuracy in lung nodule detection regardless of size, density, and reader experience.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia2010001

Authors: Emanuele Armocida Francesco Fornai Gianfranco Natale

Flaminio Rota was a 16th century anatomist and medical figure at the University of Bologna. He was highly praised, despite his poor scientific production. As a matter of fact, Rota competed with scientific activities in different anatomical arguments, but he did not publish any important research. Nevertheless, we know the principal results of his scientific activity because indirect information can be found in other publications, where some of his studies were emphasized by his contemporary colleagues. Henning Witte even mentioned Rota as a very famous Italian medical figure, together with Galilei and Santorio. On the other hand, Rota was a highly esteemed teacher. The best evidence of his recognition is well-documented in the Palace of Archiginnasio in Bologna, where Rota’s teaching activity was praised with six memorial epigraphs. In the south-eastern outskirts of Bologna, there is an 18th century villa, including a more ancient annex, that belonged to Rota. At this location, the upper parts of the walls and the ceiling are decorated with a pictorial cycle illustrating medical scenes. In this paper, we theorize regarding his scientific thinking by analyzing the pictorial cycle he commissioned.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia1020022

Authors: Samira Mortazavi Kambiz Kamyab Hesari Atieh Khorsand Maryam Ardalan

Neuroblastoma-like schwannoma is known as a rare unusual variant of schwannoma with difficulties of differential diagnosis with neuroblastoma, Ewing sarcoma/peripheral neuroectodermal tumor and other cutaneous small round cell tumors. Herein, we describe a neuroblastoma-like schwannoma that was presented as a painless lesion on the dorsal side of the left hand in a 39-year-old woman. Composed collagen fibers in the central core of rosettes and diffuse expression of S100 protein in the tumor cells found in the biopsy specimens confirmed the Schwann cell origin of the tumor.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia1020021

Authors: Jailenne I. Quiñones-Rodriguez Cristian Mantilla-Rosa Félix Rodríguez Catalina I. Villamil Juan Fernández Maryvi González-Solá Cristhian Torres-Toro Martin G. Rosario

Background: The flexor digitorum brevis tendon to the fifth digit is frequently absent, and this absence is typically an incidental discovery during dissection or surgical studies. This study aimed to assess the frequency of a missing flexor digitorum brevis tendon in a Hispanic population for the first time, the association between the absence of the flexor digitorum brevis tendon, variables such as sex and ethnicity, and the functional implications of an absent tendon. Methods: Our sample consists of 30 cadavers whose feet were dissected and examined for the presence or absence of the digiti minimi tendon. Results: We found no significant relationship between the presence or absence of the tendon to sex or ethnicity. However, due to a lack of significant effects on human ambulation from the absence of this tendon, and the ability of adjacent muscles to adapt to its absence, the absence of this tendon might become increasingly prevalent over time. Conclusions: Knowledge of the frequency of flexor digitorum brevis variations concerning the demographic characteristics of patients would be of clinical importance for tendon repair, tendon transfer to correct deformities such as claw toe or hammer toe, or soft tissue reconstruction in foot surgery.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia1020020

Authors: Fabrizio Zaccheo Francesco Mariotti Alessandro Guttadauro Alfredo Passaretti Maria Elisabetta Campogrande Giulia Petroni Andrea Cicconetti

Detailed knowledge about the normal anatomy and its variations is a necessity in good clinical and surgical practice. The case we are reporting here shows a rare configuration origin of the superior thyroid, lingual and facial arteries arising directly from a pentafurcated common carotid artery. A fresh frozen latex-infiltrated cadaver was dissected. The superior thyroid artery, the lingual artery and the facial artery were found to be directly detached from the common carotid artery as terminations of the five terminal rami variations. The current classifications of anatomical variants are discussed in detail in relation to this case.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia1020019

Authors: Alberto Fucarino Stefano Burgio Letizia Paladino Celeste Caruso Bavisotto Alessandro Pitruzzella Fabio Bucchieri Francesco Cappello

In this paper, we want to refute the notion that the microbiota should be considered an organ, given that an organ comprises tissue of similar or different embryological origin, while the microbiota is a pool of different microbial species originating individually from single replications and not from a common ancestral cellular element. Hence, we would like to propose a new morphological interpretation of its nature, based on the comprehensive context in which these microbes live: a muco-microbiotic layer of hollow organs, such as the airways and the bowel. The above concept should represent not only a new terminological annotation but also a more accurate portrayal of the physiology and pathophysiology of these organs. Indeed, a better understanding of the biological nature of this part of the human body can help scientists develop more specific experimental protocols, potentially leading to the establishment of better therapeutic strategies.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia1020018

Authors: Hidemasa Yoneda Katsuyuki Iwatsuki Masaomi Saeki Michiro Yamamoto Masahiro Tatebe

The distal radius, one of the frequent sites of upper extremity fractures, includes unique anatomy referred to as the volar rim. Few studies have addressed its interindividual differences. Additionally, implants for osteosynthesis must match the anatomical structures to prevent soft tissue invasion, but no implants have focused on that so far. In this study, three-dimensional surface models were created from CT images of 101 cases. Analysis of the distal radius, including the volar rim anatomy, was performed to design plates to minimize the discrepancy between the bone anatomy and the implant. The results showed that there were considerable interindividual differences in the morphology of the distal radius, particularly in the degree of palmar protrusion of the volar rim. A moderate correlation between the width of the distal radius and the shape of the volar rim was demonstrated. Considering that variations in plate width are available for treatment of normal distal radius fractures and that the shape of the volar rim changes in correlation with the width of the bone, we infer that simply adding volar rim shape information to the current variations should suffice in preventing complications. We conclude that individualized design according to the shape of the volar rim is unnecessary in fracture surgery.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia1020017

Authors: Ana Corte-Real

The objectives of this study were to identify and correlate orofacial anatomy discrepancies as biometric data and the impact of its rehabilitation as an educational, forensic approach to human identification. An observational and retrospective cohort study was performed on cephalography and photographic exams of a clinical database. The clinical reports were randomly selected according to inclusion and exclusion criteria, reviewed, and interpreted according to the anatomical features. The anatomic features analyzed for human identification compare pre- and post-medical intervention data. The challenging anatomical area was the lower one-third of the face. In an extreme forensic condition, identification should consider the medical history for a positive and accurate conclusion.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia1020016

Authors: Francesco Barbato Roberto Allocca Giorgio Bosso Fabio Giuliano Numis

Computed tomography (CT) angiography is the main method for the initial evaluation of cerebral circulation in acute stroke. A comprehensive CT examination that includes a review of the three-dimensional and maximum-intensity projection images of the main intra and extracranial arteries allows the identification of most abnormalities and normal variants. Anatomical knowledge of the presence of any normal variants, such as fenestration, duplications, and persistent fetal arteries, plays a crucial role in the diagnosis and therapeutic management of acute stroke. However, the opposite is also true. In fact, sometimes it is the clinical picture that allows weighing how relevant or not the alteration found is. Therefore, in this review, a concise representation of the clinical picture attributable to a given arterial vessel will be included.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia1020015

Authors: Sandeep Silawal Shikshya Pandey Gundula Schulze-Tanzil

The “cleidooccipital branches” are integral muscular branches of the sternocleidomastoid muscles (SCM), as well as the trapezius muscles, which construct the anterior and posterior borders of the posterior triangle of the neck, respectively. The term “cleidooccipital muscle”, in the literature, generally describes the accessory muscle, which is proximally attached to the middle portion of the clavicle, separate from the clavicular attachment of the SCM or trapezius muscle, and crosses the posterior triangle of the neck obliquely. With proximity to either the trapezius or the SCM, the accessory cleidooccipital muscles can be divided into posterior and anterior accessory cleidooccipital muscles, respectively. At present, most of the descriptions in the literature associated with the accessory cleidooccipital muscles concern the posterior accessory cleidooccipital muscles. The anterior accessory cleidooccipital muscles are mostly recognized as a proximal clavicular-head-sided supernumerary variation of the SCM. We propose a new classification of these muscles, with nomenclatures to help researchers to differentiate the cleidooccipital branches or muscles from one another. Introducing this classification, we hope that more clarity can be achieved when addressing the so-called “cleidooccipital muscle” in the future.

Anatomia doi: 10.3390/anatomia1020014

Authors: Naree Choi Euijin Kim Jae Hyun Ahn Jae Ha Ahn Ji Yei Park Se Hyun Kim Joon Ho Bang Chan Park Junyang Jung Sang Ouk Chin Youngbuhm Huh Dokyoung Kim

EduTech (Education and Technology) has drawn great attention in improving education efficiency for non-face-to-face learning and practice. This paper introduced a blended gross anatomy class using both virtual reality (VR) devices and traditional programs alongside a practice-based cadaver dissection and in-class observation. The class allowed the students to get hands-on experience with both practical practice and VR operations to identify the biochemical aspects of the disease-induced internal organ damage as well as to view the three-dimensional (3D) aspect of human structures that cannot be practiced during the gross anatomy practice. Student surveys indicated an overall positive experience using VR education (satisfaction score over 4 out of 5, Likert scale question). There remains room for improvement, and it was discussed with the results of the essay-based question survey. Formative evaluation results showed that the students who trained in blended anatomy classes with VR set-ups received higher scores (85.28 out of 100, average score) than only cadaver-based anatomy class (79.06 out of 100, average score), and this result represents that the hybrid method could improve the academic efficiency and support the understanding of the 3D structure of the body. At present, VR cannot totally replace actual cadaver dissection practice, but it will play a significant role in the future of medical education if both students and practitioners have more VR devices, practice time, and a more intuitive user-friendly VR program. We believe that our paper will greatly benefit the development of EduTech and a potential new curriculum item for future medical education.