Forensic Sci., Volume 5, Issue 3 (September 2025) – 19 articles

Background/Objectives: Clinical documentation of injuries is essential for forensic evaluation, especially in criminal cases. However, vague descriptions and inconsistent terminology often reduce the forensic utility of these records. This study examines the terminological quality and forensic interpretability of clinical injury documentation with the aim of improving medico-legal assessments. Methods: A corpus of 1000 Hungarian medical diagnostic reports of injuries was analyzed using descriptive statistics and manual terminological review. Results: Significant gaps in morphological detail and frequent terminological inconsistencies were found. Terms describing incised and chop wounds were often used interchangeably or inaccurately, impairing forensic interpretation of injury mechanisms, instruments, severity, and anatomical location. These variations also challenge bodily harm classification and injury event reconstruction. Conclusions: The findings highlight the need for harmonizing clinical and forensic terminology. Improved consistency in injury documentation will enhance its clarity, reliability, and forensic value, facilitating better interdisciplinary collaboration and legal outcomes. Full article

Background/Objectives: This paper presents cranial MMS data for an American Indian (AI) sample from New Mexico. We compare these data to other population reference samples to understand biological distance and classification patterns. Methods: Cranial MMS data was collected from CT scans of AI individuals (n = 839) in the New Mexico Decedent Image Database. We used 12 traits following a published protocol for CT data and excluded nasal bone contour. The AI sample is compared to other samples of African American or Black, Asian, Hispanic, and White individuals to assess biological distance and classification accuracy. Results: Biological distance analysis indicated similarity among the AI, Hispanic, and Black samples, but dissimilarity among the Asian and White samples to the AI sample. Classification accuracy was low for the overall model, with Hispanic and Black individuals frequently misclassifying as AI. Conclusions: As is true everywhere, ideas about identity are complex in New Mexico. AI and Hispanic individuals in NM self-ascribe to one or both social groups. We found that biological data cannot meaningfully differentiate between these social groups, as crania are morphologically similar when examining cranial MMS traits. These results, coupled with New Mexican identity and genetics, contributes to the difficulty in group attribution in forensic casework. Nevertheless, the reference data for AI presented here can provide more robust statistics that support the likelihood of AI and Hispanic affinity in population affinity analysis. We underscore the need for an understanding of regional population history and structure and reference samples while assessing population affinity in forensic casework. Full article

Background/Objectives: Suicide in prison is a significant medico-legal and public health concern, with rates several times higher than in the general population. Vulnerability is heightened by psychiatric disorders, substance use, and custodial stressors such as isolation, overcrowding, and restricted healthcare access. This study examines custodial suicides to identify diagnostic complexities, systemic shortcomings, and possible prevention strategies, including technological innovations. Methods: We conducted a retrospective forensic investigation of sixteen confirmed custodial suicides between 2022 and 2024. Each underwent a standardized protocol comprising crime scene inspection, complete autopsy, histopathology, toxicology, and review of prison medical and psychiatric records. Data on suicide methods, psychiatric comorbidities, and substance use were analyzed. Results: Hanging was the predominant method (12/16), displaying classical forensic signs such as pale, oblique ligature marks and petechial hemorrhages. Four cases involved acute intoxication, often with non-prescribed drugs. Psychiatric disorders were identified in 14 cases, including major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and substance use disorder. Toxicological analyses revealed both prescribed and illicit substances, highlighting unauthorized exchanges within facilities. Autopsy findings consistently excluded homicide or natural causes, confirming the vitality of lesions and the mechanism of death. Conclusions: Custodial suicides are strongly associated with untreated or inadequately managed psychiatric conditions, compounded by restrictive prison environments. Comprehensive forensic autopsies are essential for accurate cause-of-death determination and institutional accountability. Preventive strategies should combine psychiatric care, architectural modifications to reduce ligature points, and ethical integration of AI-based surveillance for early detection of suicidal behavior. A multidisciplinary, rights-based approach is crucial to reduce suicide rates and safeguard the dignity and life of incarcerated individuals. Full article

Background/Objectives: The incorporation of the human growth and development literature, an ontogenetic framework, a large virtual sample of individuals across the entire growth period, and a contemporary sample of adult individuals provides a unique opportunity to explore the cranial complex across the entire life cycle. This study (1) assesses cranial variation in postnatal ontogeny to determine the life history stage during which subadult crania can reach comparable levels of phenotypic expression to adult crania and (2) exposes when biological sex can be estimated using craniometric data from immature individuals with accuracy levels comparable to adults. Methods: Contemporary individuals between birth and 102 years of age from one virtual (Subadult Virtual Anthropology Database; SVAD) and one skeletal (Forensic Data Bank; FDB) collection were used in the analyses (n = 2152). Results: Discriminant analysis reveals a clear ontogenetic trajectory across the life history stages, with adolescents, SVAD adults, and FDB adults exhibiting similar cranial dimensions. The analysis also revealed a shift from the growth energetic period into the reproductive energetic period during adolescence. This transition is reflected in the divergence of male and female craniometrics in adolescence, which is also when sex estimation accuracy is comparable to SVAD and FDB adults. Conclusions: The current study argues that skeletal and/or dental maturity is not necessary to estimate sex using the cranium and urges the field to reconsider methodological divisions between subadults and adults. Full article

Suicide is a public health concern worldwide. The methods used worldwide can vary based on geographical context and the ease with which victims can find the means to act on suicidal thoughts. In this context, the recent emergence of an online market for toxic and narcotic substances has increased accessibility to these substances for recreational and suicidal purposes. The presented case concerns a fatal sodium nitrite dose purchased online. The body exhibited the characteristic blue-gray staining of hypostasis, more evident on the neck and the upper third of the posterior surface of the chest, and toxicological analysis revealed methemoglobin levels exceeding 30%. Although there is no standardized analytical procedure, the determination of nitrite in postmortem samples is crucial in these cases. Additionally, nitrite is difficult to detect postmortem because it rapidly turns into sodium nitrate. In the case presented, capillary ion analysis (CIA) with direct UV detection was performed for the qualitative and quantitative determination of nitrite and nitrate in the cadaveric central blood samples. The analytical determination identified the presence of nitrite ions and sodium nitrate, in a concentration of 9515 µmol/L. Full article

Background/Objectives: Methods of estimating the biological profile in forensic anthropology must meet criteria set forth by standards for admissibility in legal proceedings. Subadult biological profile methods have not been as extensively validated due to limited sources of subadult skeletal reference data. Methods: Data for the contemporary Japanese validation sample were collected from full-body, postmortem computed tomography (PMCT) scans (n = 118). Ten subadult age and stature estimation methods using long bone lengths were validated for accuracy, precision, and bias. The methods included both linear and nonlinear regression. Results: Nonlinear regression methods yielded high validation accuracy and precision for age (>90%; <2.5 cm) and stature (>95.89%; <17 cm) and performed better than linear regression methods. Most methods do not meet criteria set by the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) Standards Board (ASB) or the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Conclusions: As skeletal data become increasingly accessible, it is important to continue to validate currently available methods for estimating aspects of the subadult biological profile while also prioritizing the creation of new population-specific and generic methods applicable for forensic casework. Particular focus should lie on improving reference skeletal material variation, appropriate statistical modeling, and adherence to standards in forensic anthropology. Recommendations for choosing the most appropriate method, given a subadult forensic case, are provided. Full article

Informed consent is a fundamental component of both the right to health and self-determination. Its violation, which occurs when the acquisition process is absent or flawed, can also lead to legal proceedings for isolated harm, regardless of the simultaneous existence of those related to biological and psychological harm. Across Europe, this remains a legal and ethical cornerstone, increasingly important in the context of cross-border care and culturally diverse healthcare settings. Many countries have enacted specific laws to ensure patients receive adequate information, while courts continue to refine its interpretation—often highlighting the inadequacy of informed consent in daily clinical practice. In Italy, in particular, recent rulings underscore the need for clear, comprehensive, and properly documented consent formats for health treatments. This review synthesizes rulings, regulations, and the scientific literature to offer practical guidance for improving informed consent practices in Italy, valuing the role of forensic experts in the integration in healthcare settings of the different interests at stake. The aim is to support both legal compliance and the delivery of high-quality, patient-centred care. Courts and legislation in Italy demand clear and tailored informative disclosure for health treatments, with indications of the treatment and outcomes, to be in written form. Yet, foreseeable risks, more common complications, and alternative treatment options are often poorly communicated in practice—frequently forming the basis of claims for compensation. Integrating team-based consultations and multimedia tools can significantly enhance patient understanding and secure the informed consent process. Those key points are summarized in a brief table, ideally suggesting the minimal requirements for an informed consent form. Investing in standardizing informed consent protocols, and also fostering the sharing of best practices with forensic medicine experts, are crucial steps in ensuring shared decision-making in healthcare and trying to reduce legal disputes. Full article

Digital dentistry is undergoing rapid evolution, with three-dimensional imaging technologies increasingly integrated into routine clinical workflows. Originally developed for accurate dental arch reconstruction, modern intraoral scanners have demonstrated expanding versatility in capturing intraoral mucosal as well as perioral cutaneous structures. Concurrently, photogrammetry has emerged as a powerful method for full-face digital reconstruction, particularly valuable in orthodontic and prosthodontic treatment planning. These advances offer promising applications in forensic sciences, where high-resolution, three-dimensional documentation of anatomical details such as palatal rugae, lip prints, and bite marks can provide objective and enduring records for legal and investigative purposes. This study explores the forensic potential of two digital acquisition techniques by presenting two cadaveric cases of animal bite injuries. In the first case, an intraoral scanner (Dexis 3600) was used in an unconventional extraoral application to directly scan skin lesions. In the second case, photogrammetry was employed using a digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera and Agisoft Metashape, with standardized lighting and metric scale references to generate accurate 3D models. Both methods produced analyzable digital reconstructions suitable for forensic archiving. The intraoral scanner yielded dimensionally accurate models, with strong agreement with manual measurements, though limited by difficulties in capturing complex surface morphology. Photogrammetry, meanwhile, allowed for broader contextual reconstruction with high texture fidelity, albeit requiring more extensive processing and scale calibration. A notable advantage common to both techniques is the avoidance of physical contact and impression materials, which can compress and distort soft tissues, an especially relevant concern when documenting transient evidence like bite marks. These results suggest that both technologies, despite their different origins and operational workflows, can contribute meaningfully to forensic documentation of bite-related injuries. While constrained by the exploratory nature and small sample size of this study, the findings support the viability of digitized, non-destructive evidence preservation. Future perspectives may include the integration of artificial intelligence to assist with morphological matching and the establishment of digital forensic databases for pattern comparison and expert review. Full article

Background: Sexual violence poses a significant challenge to European lawmakers, impacting the victim’s physical and psychological health. This study examines sexual violence legislation across EU member states, Switzerland, and the UK, analyzing similarities, differences, challenges, and potential solutions for effective policy development. The research was motivated by the adoption of EU Directive 2024/1385. Methods: This study analyzes sexual violence legislation across European countries in a comparative and qualitative way, highlighting differences, commonalities, and the potential for uniform regulation. The data were collected from the literature published between 2015 and 2024, focusing the EU member states, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Results: The examination of the norms governing sexual offenses in various European countries revealed significant differences in legislative frameworks, reflecting diverse cultural, ethical, and legal perspectives. Conclusions: Despite European countries sharing the goal of protecting victims and combating sexual violence, there are significant legislative disparities. Key recommendations include enhancing EU member state cooperation, implementing joint training programs, developing a specific EU directive, and creating coordinated prevention and education programs. While respecting national legal diversity, a unified approach is needed for effective prevention and prosecution of sexual violence across Europe. Full article

Background: In forensic anthropology, estimating stature is an essential part of constructing the biological profile of unknown individuals. While long bones are typically used for this purpose, they are often missing or incomplete in forensic contexts. Methods: This study examined the relationship between cranial and mandibular measurements and estimated stature in a sample of 84 identified adult (aged over 18 years) Portuguese skeletons (43 females and 41 males) from two osteological collections. Stature was estimated using Mendonça’s regression model based on humeral length. Four cranial and mandibular measurements were obtained, and intra- and interobserver reliability was assessed. Results: All variables showed statistically significant correlations with stature, although only the mandibular measurement—the distance between the mental symphysis and the mental foramen (SMFM)—and sex contributed significantly to the final regression model. The model explained 51.3% of the variance in stature. Conclusions: These findings suggest that SMFM, a stable mandibular marker, may serve as a useful supplementary indicator for stature estimation in cases where long bones are not available. Further studies with larger and more diverse samples are needed to validate these findings and evaluate their applicability across different populations. Full article

The disappearance of foreign minors in Italy is a long-standing and critically underexamined social phenomenon. Despite alarming figures, public and institutional attention remains episodic and media-driven, often limited to high-profile or criminal cases. This study offers a socio-forensic analysis of official data from 2014 to 2023, revealing significant inconsistencies in how these cases are reported, categorized, and followed up by Italian institutions. It highlights how unaccompanied and migrant minors are especially vulnerable within a fragmented and reactive system that lacks transparency and effective preventive measures. Rather than presenting new empirical data, the article reinterprets existing sources to expose systemic gaps, drawing comparisons with the more structured approaches adopted in countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, and Spain. These international examples show how multilingual communication, early warning systems (e.g., AMBER Alert), and public geolocation tools can offer timely, coordinated responses to disappearances—tools that remain largely absent or underused in Italy. The article further argues for the integration of forensic geospatial methods, such as locus operandi analysis, remote sensing, and forensic geoarchaeology, not as experimental techniques, but as practical tools that could strengthen Italy’s institutional capacity to respond. Ultimately, this study seeks to elevate the discussion surrounding missing foreign minors from a marginal social concern to a matter of forensic and public interest, and to encourage interdisciplinary reflection on how such disappearances are framed—and too often dismissed—within the national landscape. Full article

Background: Positive identification is at the forefront of tasks for forensic practitioners when a set of remains is discovered. Standard means of identification include fingerprints, dental, and DNA analyses; however, additional methods are utilized by forensic practitioners to identify remains when these primary methods of identification are not applicable. Comparative radiography has become a frequently employed approach for positive identification, specifically focused on individualizing characteristics evident in human skeletal variation. Regions that display wide ranges of morphological variation within the human skeleton include the cranium as well as the thorax. With regard to the cranium specifically, paranasal sinuses have been recognized as unique features and are valuable for identification purposes. Objectives: This paper explores the basic information of the anatomy and development, range of variation, and the importance of paranasal sinuses in forensic contexts. Results: This article discusses how practitioners can best use the morphological information contained in the paranasal sinuses and how to compare the antemortem and postmortem datasets involving different imaging modalities for positive identification purposes, in order to provide practical concepts that may assist in cases where paranasal sinuses may be used for forensic human identification. Conclusions: Understanding the development of paranasal sinuses, the imaging techniques applied for their visualization, as well as the principles of identification, is key to conducting proper antemortem vs. postmortem comparisons and effectively utilizing paranasal sinuses in forensic identification contexts. Full article

This case report presents a multidisciplinary forensic investigation into a cold case involving a missing person in Italy, likely linked to a homicide that occurred in 2008. The investigation applied a standardized protocol integrating satellite imagery analysis, site reconnaissance, vegetation clearance, ground-penetrating radar (GPR), and cadaver dog (K9) deployment. A dedicated decision tree guided each phase, allowing for efficient allocation of resources and minimizing investigative delays. Although no human remains were recovered, the case demonstrates the practical utility and operational robustness of a structured, evidence-based model that supports decision-making even in the absence of positive findings. The approach highlights the relevance of “negative” results, which, when derived through scientifically validated procedures, offer substantial value by excluding burial scenarios with a high degree of reliability. This case is particularly significant in the Italian forensic context, where the adoption of standardized search protocols remains limited, especially in complex outdoor environments. The integration of geophysical, remote sensing, and canine methodologies—rooted in forensic geoarchaeology—provides a replicable framework that enhances both investigative effectiveness and the evidentiary admissibility of findings in court. The protocol illustrated in this study supports the consistent evaluation of large and morphologically complex areas, reduces the risk of interpretive error, and reinforces the transparency and scientific rigor expected in judicial settings. As such, it offers a model for improving forensic search strategies in both national and international contexts, particularly in long-standing or high-profile missing persons cases. Full article

Background/Objectives: Traumatic brain injury is one of the leading causes of death and disability. When traumatic brain injury is repeated over time, it can lead to the development of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy, a chronic neurodegenerative disease commonly observed in individuals who engage in contact sports or military personnel involved in activities with a high risk of repeated head trauma. At autopsy, the examination of the brain reveals regional atrophy, corresponding to high concentrations of glutamate receptors. Microscopically, the primary findings are the deposition of neurofibrillary tangles and neuropil threads. The aim of this study is to highlight the clinical and histopathological characteristics of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy, providing diagnostic support to forensic pathologists. Additionally, it seeks to aid in the differential diagnosis of similar conditions. Methods: A review of literature was conducted following the PRISMA criteria. Of 274 articles, 7 were selected. Results: According to these papers, most patients were male and exhibited neurological symptoms and neuropsychiatric impairments, and a proportion of them committed suicide or had aggressive behavior. Conclusions: Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy remains largely underdiagnosed during life. The definitive diagnosis of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy is established post-mortem through the identification of pathognomonic tauopathy lesions. Early and accurate antemortem recognition, particularly in at-risk individuals, is highly valuable for its differentiation from other neurodegenerative conditions, thereby enabling appropriate clinical management and potential interventions. Full article

Although cranial growth has been extensively explored, forensic and biological anthropology lack a formal incorporation of how cranial growth processes impact the adult phenotype and downstream biological profile estimations. Objectives: This research uses an ontogenetic framework to identify when interlandmark distances (ILDs) stabilize during growth to reach adult levels of variation and to evaluate patterns of cranial sexual size dimorphism. Methods: Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) were conducted on standardized cranial ILDs for 595 individuals from the Subadult Virtual Anthropology Database (SVAD) and the Forensic Data Bank (FDB) aged between birth and 25 years. Cross-Validated R-squared (CVRSq) values evaluated ILD variation explained by age while knot placements identified meaningful changes in ILD growth trajectories. Results: Results reveal the ages at which males and females reach craniometric maturity across splanchnocranium, neurocranium, basicranium and cross-regional ILDs. Changes in growth patterns observed here largely align with growth milestones of integrated soft tissue and skeletal structures as well as developmental milestones like puberty. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the variability in growth by sex and cranial region and move forensic anthropologists towards recognizing cranial growth as a mosaic, continuous process with overlap between subadults and adults rather than consistently approaching subadult and adult research separately. Full article

Background: Anabolic–androgenic steroids (AASs) are commonly used for performance enhancement but have been linked to significant neurobiological consequences. This review explores the impact of AASs on neurochemical pathways, cognitive function, and psychiatric disorders, highlighting their potential neurotoxicity. Methods: A narrative review of current literature was conducted to examine AASs-induced alterations in neurotransmitter systems, structural and functional brain changes, and associated psychiatric conditions. The interplay between AASs use and other substances was also considered. Results: Chronic AASs exposure affects serotonin and dopamine systems, contributing to mood disorders, aggression, and cognitive deficits. Structural and functional changes in the prefrontal cortex and limbic regions suggest long-term neurotoxicity. AASs use is associated with increased risks of depression, anxiety, and psychosis, potentially driven by hormonal dysregulation and neuroinflammation. Co-occurring substance use exacerbates neurocognitive impairments and behavioral disturbances. Discussion: While evidence supports the link between AASs use and neurotoxicity, gaps remain in understanding the precise mechanisms and long-term effects. Identifying biomarkers of brain damage and developing targeted interventions are crucial for mitigating risks. Increased awareness among medical professionals and policymakers is essential to address AASs-related neuropsychiatric consequences. Conclusions: AASs abuse poses significant risks to brain health, necessitating further research and prevention efforts. Evidence-based strategies are needed to educate the public, enhance early detection, and develop effective interventions to reduce the neuropsychiatric burden of AASs use. Full article

Background/Objectives: Artificial intelligence (AI) is beginning to be applied in wound ballistics, showing preliminary potential to improve the accuracy and objectivity of forensic analyses. This review explores the current state of AI applications in forensic firearm wound analysis, emphasizing its potential to address challenges such as subjective interpretations and data heterogeneity. Methods: A systematic review adhering to PRISMA guidelines was conducted using databases such as Scopus and Web of Science. Keywords focused on AI and GSW classification identified 502 studies, narrowed down to 4 relevant articles after rigorous screening based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results: These studies examined the role of deep learning (DL) models in classifying GSWs by type, shooting distance, and entry or exit characteristics. The key findings demonstrated that DL models like TinyResNet, ResNet152, and ConvNext Tiny achieved accuracy ranging from 87.99% to 98%. Models were effective in tasks such as classifying GSWs and estimating shooting distances. However, most studies were exploratory in nature, with small sample sizes and, in some cases, reliance on animal models, which limits generalizability to real-world forensic scenarios. Conclusions: Comparisons with other forensic AI applications revealed that large, diverse datasets significantly enhance model performance. Transparent and interpretable AI systems utilizing techniques are essential for judicial acceptance and ethical compliance. Despite the encouraging results, the field remains in an early stage of development. Limitations highlight the need for standardized protocols, cross-institutional collaboration, and the integration of multimodal data for robust forensic AI systems. Future research should focus on overcoming current data and validation constraints, ensuring the ethical use of human forensic data, and developing AI tools that are scientifically sound and legally defensible. Full article

In forensic sciences, particularly in forensic anthropology and podiatry, assessing a person’s stature helps create a biological profile that allows for more accurate identification. Background/Objectives: When considering dynamic footprints as part of the gait pattern, certain parameters such as stride length, step length, gait width, and gait angle can be evaluated in relation to stature. The aim of this study was to assess footstep and stride length from the gait of dynamic footprints and determine if they correlate with stature and could be useful for biological profiling. Methods: Gait patterns from dynamic footprints and stature were determined in 114 females and 104 males aged 18 to 33 years. Results: All participants took the first step with their preferred foot, 56% with the right foot. Regarding step sequence, there were non-significant differences between the 4th and 5th footsteps in both sexes. Sex differences were significant in four of seven footsteps. Only a few steps significantly correlated in sequence with stature, and even these had low correlation coefficients (r = 0.295). In females, positive values of mean differences between actual and estimated stature predictions indicate that the equations tend to overestimate, whereas in a mixed sex group, most negative values of mean differences indicate underestimation. Conclusions: Given the weak correlations observed, footstep and stride length should not be considered reliable indicators for forensic stature estimation. These parameters are more suitable for biomechanical and anthropological research, while forensic applications should be considered supplementary and interpreted with caution. Full article

Background/Objectives: Over the past few decades, controlled substance abuse in drug-facilitated sexual assaults (DFSAs) has significantly increased worldwide, leading to an urgency to develop rapid and selective drug detection methods for field use (i.e., on-spot detection). Currently, techniques for detecting DFSA drug-associated samples are laborious and require skilled personnel to analyze/interpret the results. Moreover, most DFSA-associated drugs have a short half-life, making them more challenging to detect promptly. For instance, the timely detection of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) has been of ultimate concern for decades due to its fast elimination from the body. This study describes the development of a fluorescent ionic liquid nanosensor that can be used to rapidly detect GHB in the field. Methods: Trihexyltetradecylphosphonium fluorescein (THP₂FL) ionic liquid was synthesized and evaluated for its potential application in detecting GHB. THP₂FL nanoparticles in deionized water were synthesized with a size of 199 nm by a reprecipitation method. Results: The addition of GHB to THP₂FL nanoparticles resulted in up to a 60% increase in fluorescence intensity and a 79% increase in absorbance. These results suggest potential applications for using the fluorescent THP₂FL nanoparticles to detect GHB. The sensor’s selectivity was tested on compounds structurally similar to GHB, and the results showed that 1,4-butanediol (a precursor of GHB) is a potentially interfering species. Conclusion: This fluorescent technique allows for field deployable sensors, which would benefit screening GHB onsite. Full article