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22 November 2025

An Analysis of Online Newspaper Framing of the COVID-19 Vaccine Rollout in Nigeria

,
and
1
Faculty of Languages and Communication Studies, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Niger 911101, Nigeria
2
Department of Communication, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29672, USA
3
School of Humanities Media and Creative Communication, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Journal. Media2025, 6(4), 195;https://doi.org/10.3390/journalmedia6040195 
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This article belongs to the Collection Role of Media and Journalism during COVID-19 Pandemic: Lessons Learned and Future Challenges
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Abstract

This study analyzed 911 articles from three major newspapers—Vanguard, Daily Trust, and Leadership—using framing theory to assess coverage. Content analysis revealed most headlines were positively framed. The most prevalent frame was attribution of responsibility, while the morality frame appeared least frequently. These findings underscore the influential role of media framing in shaping public health perceptions and highlight the impact of social and political influencers on pandemic-related information dissemination.

1. Introduction

Nigeria confirmed its first COVID-19 case on 27 February 2020 (), with 267,188 cases and 3155 deaths reported by early 2024 (). The government set a target to vaccinate 70% of the population by the end of 2022 (), yet only 39% had been fully vaccinated by February 2024 (). Vaccine hesitancy remains a significant barrier to achieving herd immunity (). Defined as the delay or refusal of vaccination despite availability (), hesitancy is recognized globally as a major public health threat (). Contributing factors include misinformation, distrust, low health literacy, complacency, and limited access to vaccines (; ).
Misinformation and fake news disseminated through both social and traditional media have significantly contributed to vaccine hesitancy in Nigeria (). Key factors include limited access to vaccines, low public trust, and a lack of credible information (). Addressing hesitancy and promoting vaccine uptake requires a clear understanding of these underlying influences (). This study investigates how Nigerian newspapers framed the COVID-19 vaccine and the extent to which these frames influenced public attitudes. Media coverage plays a critical role in shaping health behaviors and perceptions (), particularly through the framing of vaccine-related information and misinformation (). Guided by framing theory (), this research analyzes media narratives to inform future public health communication strategies.

2. COVID-19 and Vaccine Hesitancy in Nigeria

Despite longstanding public health campaigns, Nigeria continues to report some of the lowest vaccination rates globally, particularly during outbreaks of poliomyelitis and meningitis (). Vaccine hesitancy in northern Nigeria has intensified since the late 1990s, following Pfizer’s controversial meningitis vaccine trial, and resurfaced during the 2003 polio eradication efforts (). These events fueled conspiracy theories, particularly in Muslim-majority regions, alleging population control motives by Western entities. Concerns over infertility and sterility further contributed to resistance, culminating in violent incidents such as the 2013 killing of 12 vaccinators by extremists in Kano.
Political, religious, and cultural factors, along with widespread distrust, significantly contribute to vaccine hesitancy in Nigeria (; ). Influential leaders have played a central role in shaping public resistance to vaccines, particularly during the meningitis and polio campaigns (; ). These ideological and cultural dynamics are deeply embedded in Nigeria’s decision-making processes and societal structures. In northern regions, traditional and religious leaders have propagated conspiracy theories, alleging that vaccines—especially those from Western sources—aim to reduce the Muslim population. The oral polio vaccine, for instance, was accused of containing harmful substances such as carcinogens, anti-fertility agents, and HIV (). Such narratives have eroded public trust in both Nigerian and Western health authorities, fueling concerns over vaccine safety and efficacy and contributing to low uptake (; ).
When COVID-19 was first reported in Nigeria on 27 February 2020 (), efforts to contain the virus were hindered by denialism and skepticism from influential religious leaders, including Pastor Chris Oyakhilome and Sheikh Sani Yahaya Jingir. Jingir notably referred to the virus as a “Ghost of the West,” alleging it was designed to prevent Muslims from attending Friday prayers and the pilgrimage to Mecca (). Misinformation and political rhetoric have since played a significant role in fueling vaccine hesitancy in Nigeria (; ). For example, Governor Yahaya Bello publicly questioned the safety of COVID-19 vaccines, claiming they were intended to cause harm (). Similarly, some religious leaders framed the pandemic as divine punishment, further discouraging vaccine uptake among their followers (). Understanding these sociopolitical and cultural drivers of vaccine hesitancy is essential for addressing public misconceptions and informing effective vaccination policies in Nigeria.
Nigeria launched its mass COVID-19 vaccination campaign in March 2021 with the goal of immunizing 70% of the population (). To achieve this, strategies focused on addressing misinformation and public misperceptions (). However, the campaign faced significant challenges across sub-Saharan Africa, including inadequate funding, limited access for vulnerable populations, safety concerns, logistical inefficiencies, inequitable distribution, and persistent vaccine hesitancy (; ).
Prior to the COVID-19 vaccination campaign, Nigeria faced significant vaccine hesitancy, particularly regarding meningitis and polio immunizations (). Misinformation—such as claims of carcinogenic contaminants, HIV-laced ingredients, and anti-fertility agents—led to widespread resistance and vaccine boycotts (). Similar patterns of skepticism have emerged around COVID-19 vaccines, driven by concerns over safety and efficacy (). To counteract hesitancy and promote vaccine uptake, health communication strategies must deliver clear, accurate information emphasizing the safety and effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines in preventing transmission ().

3. Media and the COVID-19 Vaccine

The media plays a critical role in health communication (), yet during the COVID-19 pandemic, it also became a conduit for misinformation, contributing to vaccine hesitancy (). Social media platforms facilitated the rapid spread of false information about COVID-19 vaccines (; ). Mainstream media outlets were also identified as sources of misinformation (). In Nigeria, public comments on YouTube revealed that vaccine hesitancy was driven by mistrust and the prevalence of misleading information in the online media environment ().
The media plays a vital role in promoting public health by disseminating messages that encourage positive health behaviors (). During the COVID-19 pandemic, news outlets served as key intermediaries between health experts and the public, helping individuals navigate health and safety information (). The effectiveness of vaccine-related campaigns depends heavily on public engagement, which is shaped by media coverage (). Traditional media, particularly newspapers, have proven essential in countering misinformation and swiftly addressing rumors circulating on social media regarding COVID-19 vaccine safety ().
Vaccine safety is a critical factor in fostering public acceptance and uptake. The effectiveness of health communication in building trust and encouraging vaccination largely depends on how information is framed (; ). Newspapers play a key role in public health campaigns by promoting awareness and influencing behavior to address vaccine hesitancy (). Despite evidence of their impact on shaping health behaviors, limited research exists on how newspapers frame vaccine-related information in their online editions ().

4. Framing and the COVID-19 Vaccine

Framing theory offers valuable insight into how media shape public understanding by emphasizing specific aspects of reality to promote particular interpretations. According to (), framing involves selecting elements of perceived reality and constructing narratives that highlight their connections to influence how audiences define problems, assign causality, make moral judgments, and consider solutions (). Research indicates that media framing effectively influences public responses to health issues, including influenza and H1N1 vaccination (; ). However, the COVID-19 pandemic has amplified the role of misinformation in shaping vaccine-related decision-making, as competing media narratives increasingly affect public perceptions (; ; ; ).
Negative media framing has portrayed COVID-19 vaccines as harmful, linking them to adverse outcomes such as death and thrombosis (). Additionally, the way vaccine information is framed—alongside perceptions of vaccine attributes and peer influence—has significantly shaped parental decisions regarding child vaccination (). Despite the global progression of COVID-19 vaccination campaigns, limited research exists on how Nigerian newspapers have reported the rollout. Given the persistent impact of vaccine hesitancy on public willingness to vaccinate, analyzing media framing within the Nigerian context remains essential ().
The framing of information significantly influences public attitudes and perceptions toward the COVID-19 vaccine (). This study examines how Nigerian online newspapers framed COVID-19 vaccine-related headlines, focusing on frame setting to understand how these headlines shaped public discourse around vaccine perception and adoption. Prior research indicates that newspapers vary in their framing approaches (; ). Headlines, as the initial point of contact for readers, play a pivotal role in shaping interpretations, often preceding deeper engagement with full articles (). Accordingly, this study first analyzes headlines, followed by article content, to address the following research question:
  • RQ1: How frequently did Nigerian newspapers’ online editions frame COVID-19 in headlines before and after the vaccine rollout?
Framing effects shape how individuals interpret information based on prior experiences, influencing their tendency to pursue perceived positive outcomes and avoid negative ones (). These effects can be conveyed through positive or negative tones, significantly impacting attitudes, behaviors, and opinion formation (). Valence framing, which presents information with either a positive or negative narrative, plays a key role in shaping public perception by altering how messages are communicated (). For instance, attribute and goal frames can influence health-related decisions depending on whether information is framed positively or negatively (). Valence framing has received substantial empirical attention, particularly in studies on HPV and H1N1 vaccination behaviors (; ).
Social and behavioral psychology research highlights the influence of valence framing on decision-making and behavioral change (). Valence framing occurs when individuals respond differently to information depending on whether it emphasizes positive outcomes (e.g., vaccines promote herd immunity) or negative consequences (e.g., vaccines cause side effects or death). Although research on COVID-19 vaccines is ongoing, evidence suggests that positively framed messages about vaccine safety enhance acceptance, build confidence, and foster trust in vaccination (; ). Accordingly, valence framing is a relevant analytical lens for this study, particularly in examining how Nigerian newspapers presented COVID-19 vaccine headlines. Notably, () found that positive framing increased booster uptake for the Moderna vaccine but reduced interest among individuals previously vaccinated with AstraZeneca when considering a switch to Pfizer. Similarly, () argued that overly positive media coverage may inadvertently reinforce resistance among vaccine-hesitant populations. This study therefore investigates the prevalence and impact of negative, positive, and neutral framing in Nigerian online newspaper headlines before and after the COVID-19 vaccine rollout. Specifically, we pose the second research question:
  • RQ2: To what extent was the COVID-19 vaccine framed in terms of headline valence by Nigerian newspapers’ online editions before and after the vaccine rollout?

5. Media Framing and Social Construction of Issues Around COVID-19 Vaccines

Media framing shapes public perception by emphasizing specific aspects of news stories (). Journalists use frames to construct meaning and influence social discourse, guiding audiences in how to interpret information (). Generic frames, which transcend specific topics and contexts, can have broad conceptual effects on media interpretation (; ). () identified five widely used generic frames: conflict, human interest, economic consequences, morality, and attribution of responsibility. These frames are increasingly applied in health communication research and were instrumental in analyzing media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic as a global health crisis ().
The conflict frame emphasizes disagreements among individuals, groups, institutions, or nations (). Human interest frames highlight personal experiences and emotions, often supporting humanitarian narratives (). The economic consequence frame focuses on the financial impact of events (), while the morality frame draws on religious or ethical considerations. The attribution of responsibility frame assigns blame or credit to specific actors or institutions. () found the attribution of responsibility frame to be the most prevalent in their analysis of European media coverage. During the COVID-19 pandemic, human interest and poverty-related issues emerged as dominant frames in global media reporting (; ). Building on prior research, this study adopts Semetko and Valkenburg’s five generic frames to analyze how Nigerian online newspapers—Vanguard, Daily Trust, and Leadership—framed the COVID-19 vaccination before and after its rollout. We propose the third research question:
  • RQ3: What is the most frequently used frame in news articles about the COVID-19 vaccine in Nigerian newspapers before and after NAFDAC (National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration and Control) approval of the vaccine?

6. Method

This study employed a quantitative content analysis. () defined content analysis as a research technique for objective, systematic, and quantitative description of manifest content of communication.1 The online editions of Vanguard, Daily Trust, and Leadership newspapers, covering the period from December 2020 to December 2022 were analyzed. These dates were selected to capture media coverage from the global launch of the first COVID-19 vaccine on 8 December 2020, through Nigeria’s national rollout beginning 5 March 2021. The three newspapers were chosen based on their ranking among Nigeria’s top ten most widely circulated publications (4th International Media and Newspapers, 2019) and their broad readership across the country. Each outlet publishes both print and online editions, distinguishing them from digital-only platforms such as Premium Times, The Cable, Nigerian Tracker, and 21st Century Chronicle. Vanguard, established in 1984 and headquartered in Lagos, maintains a nationwide presence and is accessible via vanguardngr.com. Daily Trust, based in Kaduna and Abuja, is a nationally recognized publication with both print and digital formats. Leadership, headquartered in Abuja, is widely circulated and accessible online at leadership.ng.
To facilitate data collection, the researchers obtained PDF copies of all editions of Vanguard, Daily Trust, and Leadership newspapers published between December 2020 and December 2022. A total of 2277 editions were provided and reviewed. Using keyword searches—“COVID-19 vaccine,” “COVID-19 vaccination,” and “COVID-19 jab”—an initial set of 922 articles was identified. After removing seven duplicate entries and excluding four articles unrelated to COVID-19 vaccines (focused on Malaria, HPV, Lassa Fever, and Polio), a final sample of 911 articles was retained for analysis. Of these, Vanguard contributed 307 articles, Daily Trust 192, and Leadership 412 articles.

7. Coding Scheme

A total of 911 COVID-19 vaccine-related articles were downloaded and saved in PDF format for analysis. Two key components were selected for coding: (a) headlines and (b) full article content. These served as the primary units of analysis. First, headlines from each newspaper were grouped and quantified to assess frequency. Next, headline valence was examined by categorizing each as positive, negative, or neutral—a widely accepted approach in vaccine-related content analysis (; ). Headlines were coded as positive if they emphasized vaccine efficacy, safety, availability, or herd immunity; negative if they suggested adverse effects, such as death or ineffectiveness; and neutral if they lacked evaluative language regarding safety or efficacy. In the final stage, both headlines and full articles were coded to identify the dominant frames used. A codebook was developed by the lead researcher, and printed copies of the 911 articles were distributed to coders for analysis. The study adapted five generic frames from (): conflict, human interest, economic consequence, morality, and attribution of responsibility.

8. Intercoder Agreement/Reliability

In content analysis, reliability refers to the consistency with which coders apply coding procedures over time (). Reproducibility, a key aspect of reliability, reflects the extent to which coders classify themes and categories in the same way. To ensure reliability, two coders independently analyzed the data. Following ’s () recommendation for using multiple coders as a reliability subsample, percentage agreement was calculated to assess intercoder consistency (). The intercoder agreement was 85.4% for headlines and 72For full article coding. A copy of the codebook is provided in Appendix A (Coding Sheet is provided in Table A1).

9. Results

To address RQ1, all 911 article headlines were coded to examine how Nigerian newspapers framed COVID-19 in their online editions before and after the vaccine rollout. Vanguard published 307 articles, with 120 (39%) appearing before the rollout and 187 (61%) after. Daily Trust published 192 articles—78 (41%) before and 114 (59%) after the rollout. Leadership produced 412 articles, with a majority (280; 68%) published prior to the rollout and 132 (32%) afterward. Table 1 presents the monthly distribution of COVID-19 vaccine-related articles across the three newspapers.
Table 1. Frequency and distribution of COVID-19 vaccine articles published per month.
To address RQ2, all 911 article headlines were analyzed to assess how Nigerian newspapers framed the COVID-19 vaccine in terms of headline valence before and after the rollout. Most headlines (55%, n = 504) were positively framed, emphasizing vaccine efficacy, safety, and public health benefits. Negative framing appeared in 16% (n = 143) of headlines, often highlighting concerns about side effects or vaccine skepticism. Neutral headlines accounted for 29% (n = 264), presenting information without evaluative language regarding vaccine safety or effectiveness.
To address RQ3, the study analyzed the prevalence of generic frames in Nigerian newspaper coverage of the COVID-19 vaccine before and after NAFDAC approval. Using ’s () framework, five generic frames were identified: conflict, human interest, economic consequence, morality, and attribution of responsibility. Among the 911 articles analyzed, the attribution of responsibility frame was the most frequently used, appearing in 40% (n = 365) of the articles. In contrast, the morality frame was the least utilized, present in only 5% (n = 46) of the coverage. Table 2 provides examples of headlines corresponding to each frame, illustrating how Nigerian newspapers—Vanguard, Daily Trust, and Leadership—framed the COVID-19 vaccine between December 2020 and December 2022.
Table 2. Examples of generic frames from headlines of the COVID-19 vaccines and corresponding frames: December 2020–December 2022.

10. Discussion

This study examined how three leading Nigerian online newspapers—Vanguard, Daily Trust, and Leadership—framed the COVID-19 vaccination campaign before and after its rollout. To address RQ1, all 911 article headlines were analyzed to determine the frequency of coverage across the selected outlets. Vanguard published 307 articles, with 120 (39%) appearing before the rollout and 187 (61%) after. Daily Trust contributed 192 articles, 78 (41%) of which were published before the rollout and 114 (59%) afterward. Leadership produced the highest number of articles (412), with 280 (68%) published prior to the rollout and 132 (32%) following it. These findings highlight variations in coverage patterns among the newspapers over time.
To validate our findings, prior research by () demonstrated that media coverage of the HPV vaccine increased significantly following its approval, particularly in terms of highlighting its effectiveness. This supports the broader assertion that media visibility and emphasis on vaccine-related campaigns are critical for fostering public engagement and acceptance (; ). Our findings align with this perspective, reinforcing the role of media as a key partner in health communication, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic (). Specifically, the results underscore the importance of newspapers in disseminating public health messages that promote awareness and drive behavioral change to address vaccine hesitancy ().
In contrast to Vanguard and Daily Trust, which increased coverage of the COVID-19 vaccination campaign after the rollout, Leadership primarily emphasized the campaign prior to its implementation. Of the 412 articles published by Leadership, 280 (68%) appeared before the rollout (8 December 2020–4 March 2021), while only 132 (32%) were published afterward (5 March 2021–31 December 2022). Although the study does not identify a definitive reason for this decline, the disparity may be attributed to factors such as editorial policies, ownership structures, or shifting market dynamics during the pandemic. Editorial guidelines—whether formal or informal—play a critical role in shaping news content and determining coverage priorities (). Similarly, media ownership influences editorial decisions and the selection of newsworthy topics (). It is therefore plausible that Leadership’s reduced post-rollout coverage reflects internal editorial or ownership-driven decisions.
Future research should explore news coverage trends on emerging health issues to better understand the factors contributing to coverage disparities. The findings of this study affirm the relevance of framing theory in analyzing how newspapers construct public health narratives. Moreover, the results highlight the influential role of Nigerian newspapers in shaping critical health communication during the COVID-19 vaccination campaign.
Second, this study assessed how Nigerian newspapers framed COVID-19 vaccine headlines before and after the national rollout. Of the 911 headlines analyzed, 55% (n = 504) were positively framed, 16% (n = 143) were negative, and 29% (n = 264) were neutral. These results align with ’s () framing theory, which suggests that media framing can significantly influence public attitudes and behaviors. The predominance of positive framing reflects an emphasis on vaccine safety and efficacy, often conveyed through human interest stories (39%, n = 356). This supports findings by (), who argue positive framing—particularly through human interest and attribution of responsibility—can foster public trust and encourage vaccine uptake.
In contrast to the predominance of positive coverage, 16% (n = 143) of headlines in the analyzed Nigerian newspapers presented the COVID-19 vaccine negatively. These headlines often used language that could undermine public confidence, potentially contributing to vaccine hesitancy—particularly during the rollout when AstraZeneca was the sole available vaccine. Consistent with (), our findings highlight how misinformation and negative framing in both traditional and digital media can shape public skepticism. Given the online nature of these publications, such content is easily disseminated across social platforms, amplifying the risks of misinformation and further eroding trust in vaccine safety and efficacy.
From the outset of Nigeria’s COVID-19 vaccine rollout, widespread misinformation circulated, including false claims that vaccines cause HIV, produce magnetic effects, or reduce sperm count. This study reinforces prior research indicating that misinformation—especially when amplified by media—significantly contributes to vaccine hesitancy (). Similar patterns were observed during earlier vaccination campaigns in northern Nigeria. () documented public resistance to polio vaccines due to rumors of carcinogenic contaminants, HIV-laced ingredients, and anti-fertility agents. These historical parallels highlight the persistent influence of misinformation on public health efforts.
Third, this study examined the dominant frames used in Nigerian newspaper coverage of the COVID-19 vaccine before and after NAFDAC approval. The attribution of responsibility frame was most prevalent, appearing in 40% of articles, while the morality frame was least used (5%). These findings align with ’s () assertion that media often attribute responsibility for solving or causing social issues to individuals or institutions. Our analysis highlights the role of Nigerian government agencies—such as NAFDAC, NCDC, and NPHCDA—in promoting vaccination and shaping public discourse. Headlines frequently portrayed these institutions as actively fulfilling their mandates, particularly NAFDAC’s role in regulating and approving vaccine use. Additionally, social influencers and opinion leaders—including medical professionals, politicians, and artists—were framed as key contributors to the national vaccination campaign, reinforcing public trust and engagement.
Interestingly, our findings highlight the significant roles of social influencers and opinion leaders within both the attribution of responsibility and morality frames in Nigerian newspaper coverage of the COVID-19 vaccine. However, due to the absence of audience feedback, the study could not assess the impact of these influencers on public opinion. Future research should explore interactive platforms such as X (formerly Twitter) and Facebook to analyze user responses—comments, shares, likes, and retweets—to messages from influencers and opinion leaders. These platforms offer valuable insights into public sentiment and can help identify key drivers of vaccine hesitancy. Understanding these dynamics is essential for designing effective public health communication strategies during pandemics.

11. Theoretical Implications

11.1. Framing Theory

The findings indicate that Nigerian newspapers provided substantial coverage of the COVID-19 vaccination campaign, with a predominant emphasis on positive framing. Headlines frequently highlighted vaccine safety and efficacy, aiming to encourage uptake and reduce public skepticism. These results align with (), who found that traditional media play a critical role in managing public health information during pandemics and tend to avoid fear-inducing narratives, as seen in coverage of the Ebola outbreak.
Traditional media channels—radio, television, and newspapers—played a vital role in promoting COVID-19 vaccine acceptance during the rollout (). Positive framing, particularly emphasizing vaccine safety and efficacy, was instrumental in shaping public opinion and encouraging uptake. However, media can also contribute to skepticism, as noted by (), highlighting the dual role of media in health communication. Framing theory () explains how media narratives influence public perception, while this study also underscores the relevance of attribution theory in understanding the role of social influencers and opinion leaders. The prominence of attribution of responsibility and morality frames suggests that these actors significantly shaped vaccine discourse. Future research should examine interactive platforms such as X and Facebook to assess public responses to influencer messaging. These platforms offer valuable data—comments, shares, likes, and retweets—that can help identify the influence of opinion leadership on vaccine hesitancy and inform more effective public health messaging strategies.

11.1.1. Practical and Policy Contributions

This study highlights the central role of social influencers and opinion leaders as primary sources in media coverage of the COVID-19 vaccination campaign. To enhance public health communication during emergencies, we recommend a coordinated approach involving the media, social influencers, opinion leaders (e.g., medical experts, religious and traditional leaders), public health institutions, and all levels of government. Such collaboration would foster credible information dissemination, improve public awareness, and support informed decision-making during health crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.

11.1.2. Recommendations and Conclusion

Given the risks posed by misinformation and vaccine hesitancy (; ; ), this study underscores the importance of recognizing social influencers, experts, and opinion leaders as key sources in news coverage. While this study contributes to our understanding of media framing in Nigeria, future research could expand this understanding in various ways. First, this study only examined three newspapers in Nigeria, which may not represent the diversity of media systems in Nigeria. Future research could explore social media platforms such as X, Facebook, and other platforms for further understanding. Second, this study focused on how the media framed the vaccine rollout and did not examine how audiences responded to the framing. While audience responses were not the purpose of this study, examining audience responses could provide fruitful results on the impact of media framing of the vaccine rollout. Third, this study focused on articles published between December 2020 and December 2020. These results do not capture potential ongoing developments in COVID-19 and vaccines since 2022. Follow-up studies could explore how media systems and audiences respond to the framing of the vaccine and COVID-19 in Nigeria. Fourth, this study solely employed quantitative content analysis. While this is an appropriate approach for the study at hand, it cannot provide insight into why editors and reporters and other media practitioners made decisions. Future researchers exploring media framing could employ mixed-methods approaches such as interviews alongside content analysis to help explain results. Finally, it could benefit our understanding of framing and the COVID-19 vaccine to replicate this study outside of the Nigerian context. Nigeria was not the only African nation facing questions over the COVID-19 vaccine. Comparing these results with other nations could provide a broader perspective on media framing and vaccine-related issues. Effective vaccination campaigns require credible, tailored messaging that clearly communicates the benefits, safety, and efficacy of vaccines. Future research should examine the role of social influencers and opinion leaders on interactive platforms such as X and Facebook, where user engagement (e.g., comments, shares, likes) can offer insights into public sentiment. This study demonstrates how media framing of vaccination campaigns can shape public understanding and highlights the growing influence of social and political actors in health communication.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.S. and S.M.C.; Methodology, M.S., S.M.C. and D.D.; Software, M.S. and S.M.C.; Validation, M.S. and S.M.C.; Formal Analysis, M.S. and S.M.C.; Investigation, M.S. and S.M.C.; Resources, M.S. and S.M.C.; Data Curation, M.S. and S.M.C.; Original Draft Preparation, M.S., S.M.C., and D.D.; Reviewing and Editing, M.S., S.M.C., and D.D.; Supervision, M.S., S.M.C., and D.D.; Project Administration, M.S. and S.M.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data Available upon reasonable request to the Principal Investigator.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Appendix A

CODE BOOK
December 2020–December 2022
CODER ID
                                                         
Topic:
“An Analysis of Online Newspaper Framing of the COVID-19 Vaccine Rollout in Nigeria”
  • Key
  • Newspaper Code
  • VN—Vanguard Newspaper
  • DT—Daily Trust Newspaper
  • LD—Leadership Newspaper
  • Headline Valence (Operationalization)
  • Positive—News articles that conveyed stories suggesting the COVID-19 vaccines protect herd immunity, vaccine effectiveness, vaccine safety and accessibility etc.
  • Negative—News articles that conveyed stories showcasing negative narratives suggesting the COVID-19 vaccines cause’s deaths and side effects, vaccines are not safe, and or vaccines are not effective etc.
  • Neutral—News articles where no mention is made about COVID-19 vaccines in terms of safety and efficacy and accessibility etc.
  • Generic Frames (Operationalization) and Codes
  • Conflict frame (CF) this frame examines stories conveying different conflicting points of view about the COVID-19 vaccines between individuals, groups, institutions or countries in the sampled news articles.
  • Human interest (HI) this frame explores people’s concern and how the news articles narrate humanitarian interventions and the embedded emotional responses to the COVID-19 vaccines sentiments.
  • Economic consequence (EC) this analyses the economic implications, potential or real as tied to the COVID-19 pandemic, however, highlighting or stressing the cost of vaccines, clearly illustrated the importance or otherwise of becoming vaccinated to the economy and public safety.
  • Morality Frame (MF) this frame analyses how Nigerian online newspapers frame and report the key role of social institutions, religious and traditional opinion leadership play in shaping the COVID-19 vaccination campaign rollout in Nigeria.
  • Attribution of Responsibility (AR) attributes issues or problems around the COVID-19 vaccines as the responsibility of the government, individuals, or groups for the cause or solution.
  • Instruction coders
  • Before ticking any option, kindly read the above definition and variables operationalization for key concepts to fully grasp the appropriate answer. Should you need further information or clarification, please contact authors: Mohammed Sadiq, Stephen Croucher, and Debalina Dutta.
Table A1. Coding Sheet.
Table A1. Coding Sheet.
Newspaper CodeYear, Month and Date Headline Serial NumberHeadline ValenceGeneric Frames
S/N PositiveNegativeNeutralConflict FrameHuman InterestEconomic FrameMorality FrameAttribution of Responsibility Frame
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Note

1
According to (), there are six steps to conducting a content analysis. These six steps were followed in this study. (1) formulate the research question, (2) decide on units of analysis, (3) develop a sampling plan, (4) construct coding categories and a recording sheet, (5) coding and intercoder reliability, and (6) data collection and analysis.

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