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Article

ClO2 Prolongs the Vase Life of Paeonia lactiflora ‘Hushui Dangxia’ Cut Flowers by Inhibiting Bacterial Growth at the Stem Base

by
Hongwei Wang
1,†,
Yan Zhang
1,†,
Yinglong Song
1,2,
Jiale Zhu
1,
Wenqian Shang
1,
Liwei Jiang
1,
Weichao Liu
1,
Songlin He
1,
Yuxiao Shen
1,*,
Liyun Shi
1,* and
Zheng Wang
1,*
1
College of Landscape Architecture and Art, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
2
School of Horticulture Landscape Architecture, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Horticulturae 2024, 10(7), 732; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10070732
Submission received: 15 May 2024 / Revised: 5 July 2024 / Accepted: 9 July 2024 / Published: 12 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Novel Technologies for Improving the Quality and Shelf-Life of Postharvest Commodities)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Rapid wilting after harvest greatly decreases the ornamental and economic value of fresh-cut flowers. To determine how chlorine dioxide (ClO2) affects postharvest flower quality, Paeonia lactiflora ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers in bottles were treated with different concentrations of ClO2 (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg L−1). Among the treatments, ClO2 75 (i.e., 75 mg L−1) decreased the bacterial growth and lignin content at the P. lactiflora flower stem base, while also decreasing the degree of flower stem vessel blockage. Additionally, the ClO2 75 treatment increased the relative fresh weight, water balance, soluble sugar content, soluble protein content, and antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase), but decreased the malondialdehyde content and ethylene release rate of P. lactiflora cut flowers. Thus, the aging of P. lactiflora flowers was delayed, thereby maintaining the cut flower quality. Furthermore, the vase life (i.e., ornamental period) increased by three days.

1. Introduction

Paeonia lactiflora, which is an important ornamental plant, is known as the “Flower Fairy” because of its high ornamental value and potential utility [1,2]. It has recently become a high-grade cut flower species in the international market [3]. However, several factors (e.g., short vase life, rapid wilting, and fading color) have restricted the development of the herbaceous peony cut flower industry [4].
During the aging of cut flowers in a vase, the flower stem is colonized by many bacteria and other microorganisms that secrete harmful substances. These microorganisms also flourish in the vase water and cause various problems [5]. For example, bacteria in vase water can infect the flower stem and cause vascular occlusion and embolism, resulting in decreases in the water supply as well as cell and enzyme activities, but increases in ethylene release, thereby accelerating senescence [6]. Hence, controlling microbial proliferation is critical for optimizing cut flower longevity and quality [7]. Antimicrobial compounds, such as 8-hydroxyquinoline [8], silver thiosulfide [9], 6-BA(N-(phenylmethyl)-9H-purin-6-amine) [10], sodium benzoate [11], and nano-silver [12], are applied to the base of flower stems or added to vase water to increase the vase life of cut flowers [13]. Unfortunately, several biocides have harmful effects on human health and the environment and may even be toxic to flowers [14,15]. Thus, efficient, non-toxic, inexpensive, and eco-friendly alternatives are needed to enhance the commercial production of flowers via sustainable agriculture practices. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2), which was recently recognized internationally as a safe chlorine-based disinfectant, is widely used for disinfecting drinking water and delaying postharvest fruit aging [16,17,18]. Previous research showed that the strong oxidizing and bactericidal effects of ClO2 can inhibit bacterial growth in flower stem bases, thereby enhancing the appearance of cut flowers and prolonging their vase life [19]. However, there are no published reports regarding the effect of ClO2 on P. lactiflora.
This study was conducted using P. lactiflora ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers. Specifically, different concentrations of ClO2 were added to the vase solution to determine how ClO2 affects physiological processes influencing longevity, enzyme activities, ethylene release, and microbial growth at the flower stem base. The study findings offer insights into the mechanism underlying the effect of ClO2 on fresh P. lactiflora cut flowers, while also serving as the basis for future research and development of improved fresh P. lactiflora cut flowers with a relatively long vase life.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Materials, Treatments, and Culture Conditions

The P. lactiflora cultivar ‘Hushui Dangxia’ (herbaceous peony) plants used in this study were grown at Shenzhou Mudan Garden (Luoyang, China) and were provided by the College of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences (Luoyang, China). Healthy (i.e., disease-free) branches with flower buds (i.e., flower branches) were harvested, placed in a cryo-sealed foam box, and transported to the laboratory. They were quickly cut obliquely (25 cm long), and two compound leaves were retained.
Distilled water was used as the control solution, whereas the treatment solutions consisted of ClO2 at the following four concentrations: 25 mg L−1 (ClO2 25), 50 mg L−1 (ClO2 50), 75 mg L−1 (ClO2 75), and 100 mg L−1 (ClO2 100), with 15 flowers per group, 3 replications per treatment, and 5 flowers per replication. The flowers were incubated at room temperature (23–25 °C), with relative humidity set at 50–60%. The room was illuminated with scattered light that was supplemented with daylight (80 µmol m−2 s−1) for a 12 h light/12 h dark cycle.

2.2. Morphological Indices and Moisture Status Analysis

Vase life was determined on the basis of daily morphological changes. More specifically, vase life was calculated as the number of days from when the flower branches were added to bottles until 50% of the petals had withered and fallen off the flowers. Changes in flower diameter were examined at the same time every day using a vernier caliper, whereas changes in the relative fresh weight (%) of the flower branches were calculated daily using the following formula: (fresh weight on a particular day − initial fresh weight)/initial fresh weight × 100.
According to a published method [20], water relations were examined by weighing the following each day: vase + vase solution + flower branch, vase + vase solution, and flower branch. Water uptake was calculated as the difference between the weight of the vase + vase solution and the flower branch in two consecutive periods. Water loss was calculated as the difference between the weight of the vase + vase solution + flower branch in two consecutive periods. The water balance value was calculated as the difference between the water uptake and water loss values.

2.3. Soluble Sugar and Soluble Protein Content Analyses

Petals (0.05 g) were ground to a powder and resuspended in distilled water (5 mL). The thoroughly mixed solution was placed in a water bath (85 °C) for 30 min, after which the supernatant was collected (10,000× g for 10 min at 4 °C). This step was repeated. Distilled water was added to the supernatant (final volume of 10 mL); then, the soluble sugar content was determined using the anthrone sulfate method (620 nm wavelength) [21].
The soluble protein content was determined according to a Coomassie brilliant blue colorimetric method [22]. Petals (0.05 g) were ground to a powder and resuspended in a phosphate buffer solution (3 mL, pH 7.0). The solution was centrifuged (10,000× g for 15 min at 4 °C). The supernatant (0.1 mL) was mixed with Coomassie brilliant blue G-250 solution (4.9 mL, 0.1 g L−1). After a 2 min incubation, the mixture was analyzed at a 595 nm wavelength. A standard curve was used to calculate the soluble protein content.

2.4. Antioxidant Enzyme Activity Analysis

Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was measured using a photochemical reduction method involving nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) [23]. The absorbance of the sample was measured at 560 nm, and the enzyme amount that inhibited the photochemical reduction of NBT by 50% was considered as 1 unit of SOD activity. The guaiacol method was used for determining the peroxidase (POD) activity. The change in absorbance at 470 nm within 60 s was recorded, where 0.01 represented 1 unit of POD activity. Catalase (CAT) activity was measured according to an established procedure [24]. The change in absorbance within 60 s was determined via iodometric titration at 240 nm, where 0.1 represented 1 unit of CAT activity [25].

2.5. Malondialdehyde Content Analysis

The malondialdehyde (MDA) content was determined using the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) method. Specifically, petals (0.25 g) were ground to a powder for the extraction using 5% trichloroacetic acid (5 mL). The extract was centrifuged (2500× g for 10 min at 4 °C) and then the supernatant (2 mL) was mixed with 0.67% TBA (2 mL) for 30 min in a boiling water bath (100 °C). The solution was centrifuged (10,000× g for 20 min), after which the absorbance of the supernatant was determined at 450, 532, and 600 nm. The analysis was repeated three times. The following formula was used to calculate the MDA content (μmol L−1): 6.45 (A532 − A600) − 0.56 (A450).

2.6. Ethylene Release Analysis

At room temperature (23–25 °C), flower branches were sealed in a drying box (15 L) using a rubber stopper. The drying box was gently shaken to ensure the gas in the box was uniformly distributed. A syringe was used to extract gas (1 mL) from the drying box through the rubber stopper. The gas sample was injected into a 7890 II gas chromatograph to determine the amount of ethylene released. The ethylene analysis conditions were as follows: PorapakQ chromatographic column, 2 m long with an inner diameter of 3 mm; vaporization chamber temperature, 180 °C; column temperature, 60 °C; hydrogen flow, 40 mL min−1; carrier gas (nitrogen) flow, 40 mL min−1; airflow, 300 mL min−1; FID detector. The ethylene release rate was calculated in terms of μL h−1 flower−1. The analysis was repeated three times per sample.

2.7. Bacteriostatic Effect and Scanning Electron Microscopy Examination

At 5 days after flower branches were added to bottles, the proximal segments (approximately 1 cm) of flower stems were removed using a sterile scalpel blade, immersed in 70% ethanol for 5 min (surface sterilization), and cut into approximately 20 smaller pieces, which were placed in a sterile tube containing 0.9% sterile saline (1 mL). The tube was vortexed for 5 min and then the solution was spread over the surface of beef paste peptone medium. The inoculated medium was incubated at 37 °C for 24 h.
At the onset of senescence (day 5), the control samples and samples treated with ClO2 75, which was the most effective treatment for prolonging the vase life of cut flowers, were examined using a scanning electron microscope. The base of the flower stem was removed using a sterile blade, sectioned as described previously [26], and then examined and photographed using a Hitachi 3400N scanning electron microscope (3 kV).

2.8. Browning Rate and Lignin Content Analysis

The browning (i.e., change from green to dark brown) at the flower stem base was monitored daily. The browning rate (%) was calculated using the following formula: number of dark brown stems/total number of stems × 100.
The proximal segments (approximately 1 cm) of the flower stems cut on day 7 were dried at 80 °C for 48 h and then ground to a powder. As described in the manual of the Lignin Content Detection kit (Solarbio, Beijing, China) and a published article [27], the powdered flower stem material (3 mg) was transferred to an EP tube (1.5 mL), after which the lignin content (g kg−1) was determined using the acetobromine spectrophotometry technique.

2.9. Statistical Analysis

The mean standard errors (SE) from three distinct studies with three replicates were displayed in all figures and tables. Data underwent a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS 24.0 (IBM, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Duncan’s Multiple Extreme Variance Test was used to compare multiple mean values, with p ≤ 0.05 set as the threshold for significance.

3. Results

3.1. Vase Life and Maximum Flower Diameter

The control ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers had a vase life of only five days (Table 1, Figure 1). The ClO2 treatments increased the vase life and maximum flower diameter to varying degrees depending on the concentration. More specifically, ClO2 75 resulted in the longest vase life (three days longer than the control vase life) and the largest flower diameter (3.5 cm larger than the control diameter). Hence, ClO2 delayed the aging process of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers and increased their ornamental quality.

3.2. Relative Fresh Weight and Moisture Status

After ‘Hushui Dangxia’ flower branches were added to bottles, the relative fresh weight of cut flowers initially increased and then decreased (Figure 2a). For the control treatment and the ClO2 25, ClO2 50, and ClO2 100 treatments, the relative fresh weight peaked on day three, which was two days earlier than the peak for the ClO2 75 treatment. In addition, the maximum fresh weight was higher for the ClO2 treatments than for the control treatment. The highest fresh weight was obtained for the ClO2 75 treatment (23.7% higher than that of the control treatment).
The water loss and uptake of fresh-cut flowers in different treatment groups tended to increase before decreasing and then increasing again (Figure 2b,c). On day seven, the control treatment and ClO2 100 treatment resulted in the smallest water loss. The ClO2 75 treatment resulted in the largest water uptake (54.25% higher than that of the control treatment).
During the first three days of vase life, the water balance values of the cut flowers treated with ClO2 75 or ClO2 100 increased rapidly, reaching values that were higher than those of the cut flowers that underwent the other treatments (Figure 2d). The subsequent water balance values tended to decrease and then increase slightly. On day seven, the water balance value was highest for the cut flowers treated with ClO2 75.

3.3. Soluble Sugar and Soluble Protein Contents

During the vase life of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers, the total soluble sugar content increased and then decreased, with greater increases for the cut flowers treated with ClO2 than for the control cut flowers. On day seven, the total soluble sugar content was highest for the ClO2 75 treatment (50.32% higher than that of the control treatment; Figure 3a).
The soluble protein content for all samples was highest on day one, after which it tended to decrease (Figure 3b). The ClO2 75 treatment resulted in the highest soluble protein content (34.6% higher than that of the control treatment), whereas the ClO2 25 treatment resulted in the lowest soluble protein content (4.4% lower than that of the control treatment).

3.4. Antioxidant Enzyme Activities

As the ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers aged, the SOD activity initially increased up to day five and then decreased, with the ClO2 treatments producing higher SOD activities than the control treatment (Figure 4a). More specifically, the SOD activity during the vase life of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers was highest for the ClO2 75 and ClO2 100 treatments. Notably, on day seven, the SOD activity was slightly higher for the ClO2 75 treatment than for the ClO2 100 treatment.
The POD and CAT activities peaked on day three, after which they decreased. During the vase life of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers, the ClO2 75 treatment resulted in the highest CAT and POD activities (85.6% and 18.8% higher than the activities after the control treatment, respectively; Figure 4b,c). These results suggest that the ClO2 75 treatment can increase the SOD, POD, and CAT activities of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers, thereby delaying the aging process.
During the vase life of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers, the MDA content first increased and then decreased (Figure 4d). On day seven, the MDA content was lower for the cut flowers treated with ClO2 than for the control cut flowers. Specifically, the MDA contents for the ClO2 75 and ClO2 100 treatments were 27.74% and 29.26% lower than the MDA content for the control treatment, respectively.

3.5. Ethylene Release Analysis

According to the analysis of the vase life of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers, the ethylene release rate after the control treatment increased and then decreased (Figure 5). The ethylene release rate of the cut flowers treated with ClO2 was lower than that of the control cut flowers. For example, the ethylene release rate was two times lower for the ClO2 75 and ClO2 100 treatments than for the control treatment at all time points. The ClO2 75 treatment resulted in the lowest ethylene release rate.

3.6. Browning Rate, Lignin Content, and POD Activity

The browning rate is often used as an important indicator of the extent of bacterial colonization and senescence of cut flowers. Browning was detected in the control cut flowers and the ClO2 25-treated cut flowers on day three (Figure 6). On day five, with the exception of the ClO2 75 treatment, all treatments resulted in varying degrees of stem browning. On day seven, stem browning was detectable for all treatments, but the browning rate was lowest for the ClO2 75 treatment (66%).
To further clarify the effect of ClO2 on ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flower stems, the lignin content and POD activity were analyzed. Compared with the control treatment, the ClO2 75 treatment resulted in significantly lower lignin contents and POD activities in the cut flower stems.

3.7. Bacteriostatic Effect and Scanning Electron Microscopy Analysis

To examine the inhibitory effect of different ClO2 concentrations on bacterial growth in ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers, bacteria were isolated from the cut flower stem base and cultured. The inhibitory effect of ClO2 on bacterial growth increased as the treatment concentration increased (Figure 7a). To further assess bacterial colonization at the base of cut flower stems, samples that underwent the control treatment or ClO2 75 treatment were analyzed using a scanning electron microscope. The ClO2 75 treatment inhibited bacterial growth at the ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flower stem base significantly more than the control treatment (Figure 7b). On day five, bacteria had accumulated in the xylem of the control cut flowers, thereby severely blocking xylem vessels at the base of the cut flower stems. In contrast, following the ClO2 75 treatment, the xylem vessels at the cut flower stem base had relatively few bacteria. Hence, the inhibitory effect of the ClO2 75 treatment on bacterial growth may prevent the blockage of the vascular tissue in cut flower stems.

4. Discussion

Decreases in ornamental quality caused by premature postharvest senescence adversely affect the ornamental and economic value of cut flowers [28]. Senescence is generally considered to involve a series of events in which the degradation of various compounds (e.g., proteins and lipids) ultimately leads to cell death [29]. Although senescence cannot be prevented, it can be delayed by postharvest treatments [30]. Because of its bactericidal effect, ClO2 has recently been investigated as a promising chemical for preserving plant materials during the postharvest period [31]. A previous study showed that ClO2 can stabilize the active oxygen level in Antirrhinum majus, leading to increased postharvest storage quality [32]. The findings of another study indicated that adding ClO2 to distilled water can extend the vase life of cut rose flowers [33]. Soluble sugars, which are osmoregulators, can serve as an energy source for plant growth and the maintenance of normal flower metabolic activities and water balance, whereas soluble proteins mediate the intracellular activities necessary for maintaining cut flower petal vitality [34]. In the current study, we examined the effect of ClO2 on the senescence of P. lactiflora ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers. The generated data revealed that the soluble sugar and protein contents of cut flowers were highest following the ClO2 75 treatment. Earlier research showed that the soluble sugar content (respiratory substrates) is influenced by the respiration rate [35,36]. Ethylene, which is a maturation- and senescence-related plant hormone, is closely associated with respiration and is thought to be an important factor influencing the senescence of many cut flowers, especially ethylene-sensitive cut flowers [37]. In the present study, the ClO2 75 treatment decreased the ethylene release rate, which positively affected the cut flower quality. This is in accordance with the results of earlier research on ethylene-sensitive cut flowers, including carnation, moonflower, and laurel.
The vase life of cut flowers is shortened by oxidative damage [38]. To minimize oxidative damage, the antioxidant system of cut flowers can be enhanced by promoting the production of SOD, POD, CAT, and other antioxidant enzymes [39,40]. In this study, compared with the other treatments, the ClO2 75 treatment resulted in higher antioxidant enzyme activities, which were maintained for a relatively long period. We observed that increases in antioxidant enzyme activities increased the vase life of cut flowers, which is consistent with the findings of an earlier related study [41]. The considerable decrease in antioxidant enzyme activities toward the end of the vase life likely accelerated the cut flower aging process, which shortened the ornamental period of the cut flowers. Although the enzyme activity trends were similar for the ClO2 100 and ClO2 75 treatments, the substantial oxidation induced by ClO2 may have slightly decreased plant cell integrity, leading to decreases in POD and CAT activities, with larger decreases for ClO2 100 than for ClO2 75. These differences may help to explain why the ClO2 75 treatment was slightly better than the ClO2 100 treatment for preserving cut flowers. Membrane lipid peroxidation during aging leads to the production of MDA, which has been used to reflect the degree of cell membrane lipid peroxidation and is negatively correlated with antioxidant enzyme activities [42]. The activity of cut flowers reportedly decreases in response to decreases in lipid peroxidation [43]. In the current study, the MDA content was lowest for the ClO2 75 and ClO2 100 treatments, indicating that high ClO2 concentrations can restrict lipid peroxidation in peony cut flowers.
The blockage of flower stem vessels is a common phenomenon occurring during the vase life of cut flowers [44]. This blockage interferes with the normal transport of water, ultimately resulting in wilting. Moreover, microbes that accumulate at the base of flower branches can physically block transport-related vessels [45]. Previous research indicated that during the vase life of gerbera cut flowers, a water deficit in the upper tissues due to microorganisms blocking xylem vessels led to wilting, but the use of bactericides can effectively alter the accumulation of bacteria in the stem [46]. Moreover, the synergistic effects of graphene oxide and silver nanoparticles (biostimulants) increase the postharvest life of bird of paradise cut flowers [47]. In addition, NAg prolongs the lifespan of carnation by restricting stem blockage by Enterobacter cloacae [48]. The results of the current study are consistent with the findings of earlier studies. The ClO2 75 treatment of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers in bottles resulted in the highest water balance values and fresh weights. Furthermore, the xylem vessels at the cut flower stem base were blocked by bacteria. The culturing of these bacteria revealed that increases in the ClO2 concentration decreased bacterial growth, implying that ClO2 may extend the vase life of fresh-cut flowers by disrupting the colonization of the flower stem by bacteria. This is in accordance with the results of earlier studies on other fresh-cut flowers, including rose [49] and carnation [50].
During the vase life of cut flowers, stem xylem vessels are obstructed by microbial growth as well as by the formation of tyloses, deposition of materials in the lumen of xylem vessels, and the presence of air emboli in the vascular system. Such obstructions may restrict the uptake of water and the subsequent upward transport of water, which can lower the ornamental value and longevity of cut flowers [51]. This is consistent with the results of the current study, in which we analyzed the adverse effects of bacteria at the ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flower stem base on the basis of the browning rate, POD activity, and lignin content. In the absence of ClO2, the browning rate and lignin content increased, which was in contrast to the decrease in POD activity. It is possible that the residual microorganisms in the ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers grew in the vase solution. This bacterial growth resulted in the blockage of flower stem base vessels and the death of vessel cells. The accumulation of substances secreted by bacteria at the flower stem base may have contributed to the physical blockage of xylem vessels, ultimately leading to a decrease in water uptake and retention. The ClO2 75 treatment of cut flowers decreased the lignin content at the base of the flower stem, but had the opposite effect on POD activity, suggesting that ClO2 can limit bacterial growth at the flower stem base, which can protect the stem base cells from the harmful effects of bacterial colonization. This protective effect of ClO2 may prolong the vase life and maintain the ornamental quality of cut flowers.
Cut flower senescence is a complex process [52] influenced by the water content of the plant itself as well as by active oxygen and membrane permeability, soluble sugar and protein contents, and ethylene release [53,54]. During the postharvest period, plant materials are subjected to dehydration stress, which can cause cells to produce a considerable abundance of reactive oxygen species that damage the cell structure, cause metabolic disorders, and induce oxidative stress [55]. To mitigate the harmful effects of this oxidative stress, plants use antioxidant systems to protect cells from reactive oxygen species [56]. For example, SOD, CAT, and POD are important antioxidant enzymes [57,58]. Previous studies revealed that ClO2 in vase solutions can promote SOD and CAT activities, decrease MDA contents, and increase soluble protein contents [59,60]. These changes lead to an increase in energy, improved water balance, and decreases in the endogenous ethylene release and respiration rates of cut flower petals, which effectively extend the vase life of cut flowers [61,62].

5. Conclusions

The longevity and ornamental quality of fresh P. lactiflora cut flowers were influenced by water uptake and oxidative stress. The strong oxidizing and bactericidal effects of ClO2 (especially ClO2 75) inhibited bacterial growth at the stem base of fresh-cut flowers, while also decreasing the extent of stem vascular tissue blockage and cell death at the stem base, thereby increasing the water balance rate, inhibiting membrane lipid peroxidation and ethylene release, and increasing the soluble sugar content. These changes increased the vase life and ornamental quality of fresh P. lactiflora cut flowers.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.S., Z.W., Y.S. (Yuxiao Shen) and H.W.; methodology, H.W., Y.Z., L.S. and Z.W.; resources, J.Z., W.S., L.J. and W.L.; data curation, L.S., H.W. and Y.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, H.W., Y.Z. and Y.S. (Yinglong Song); writing—review and editing, L.S. and Z.W.; supervision, S.H.; funding acquisition, L.S. and J.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was financially supported by the Young Backbone Teachers Training Program of Henan Province (Grant No. 2020GGJS044), the Central Plains Leading Talent Project (Grant No. ZYYCYU202012129), the Key Research and Development Special Project of Henan Province (Grant No. 231111110600), and the Key Research and Development and Promotion Special Project of Henan Province (Grant No. 232102110200).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Observation of the phenotype of cut flowers with different ClO2 treatments.
Figure 1. Observation of the phenotype of cut flowers with different ClO2 treatments.
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Figure 2. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the relative fresh weight (a), water loss (b), water uptake (c), and water balance (d) of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error. Different letters indicate significant differences between the mean values of different ClO2 treatments on the same day (p ≤ 0.05).
Figure 2. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the relative fresh weight (a), water loss (b), water uptake (c), and water balance (d) of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error. Different letters indicate significant differences between the mean values of different ClO2 treatments on the same day (p ≤ 0.05).
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Figure 3. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the soluble sugar (a) and protein (b) contents of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error. Different letters indicate significant differences between the mean values of different ClO2 treatments on the same day (p ≤ 0.05).
Figure 3. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the soluble sugar (a) and protein (b) contents of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error. Different letters indicate significant differences between the mean values of different ClO2 treatments on the same day (p ≤ 0.05).
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Figure 4. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the SOD (a), POD (b), and CAT (c) activities and MDA content (d) of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error. Different letters indicate significant differences between the mean values of different ClO2 treatments on the same day (p ≤ 0.05).
Figure 4. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the SOD (a), POD (b), and CAT (c) activities and MDA content (d) of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error. Different letters indicate significant differences between the mean values of different ClO2 treatments on the same day (p ≤ 0.05).
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Figure 5. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the ethylene release rate of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error. Different letters indicate significant differences between the mean values of different ClO2 treatments on the same day (p ≤ 0.05).
Figure 5. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the ethylene release rate of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error. Different letters indicate significant differences between the mean values of different ClO2 treatments on the same day (p ≤ 0.05).
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Figure 6. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flower browning rate (a), POD activity (b), and lignin content (stem base) (c). Data are presented as the mean ± standard error. Significant differences were determined on the basis of Student’s t-test (* p ≤ 0.05 and ** p ≤ 0.01).
Figure 6. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flower browning rate (a), POD activity (b), and lignin content (stem base) (c). Data are presented as the mean ± standard error. Significant differences were determined on the basis of Student’s t-test (* p ≤ 0.05 and ** p ≤ 0.01).
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Figure 7. Inhibitory effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the growth of bacteria isolated from the base of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flower stems (a). Scanning electron microscopy images of bacterial colonization at the base of cut flower stems after five days of the control (CK) and ClO2 75 treatments (b). Scale bars in cross-sections = 20 μm.
Figure 7. Inhibitory effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the growth of bacteria isolated from the base of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flower stems (a). Scanning electron microscopy images of bacterial colonization at the base of cut flower stems after five days of the control (CK) and ClO2 75 treatments (b). Scale bars in cross-sections = 20 μm.
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Table 1. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the vase life and maximum flower diameter of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers.
Table 1. Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the vase life and maximum flower diameter of ‘Hushui Dangxia’ cut flowers.
ClO2 Treatment (mg L−1)CClO2 25ClO2 50ClO2 75ClO2 100
Vase life (days)5 e ± 0.245.5 d ± 0.166 c ± 0.128 a ± 0.217 b ± 0.35
Max. flower diameter (cm)11.1 e ± 0.2013.0 d ± 0.2313.6 c ± 0.2014.6 a ± 0.2614.2 b ± 0.15
Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the vase life (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg L−1). Effects of different ClO2 concentrations on the maximum flower diameter (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg L−1). The results shown are the standard error (SE) ± the mean. Values marked with the same letter are not statistically different, and different letters indicate significant differences between the means of different ClO2 concentration treatments on the same day, with a significance level of p ≤ 0.05.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Wang, H.; Zhang, Y.; Song, Y.; Zhu, J.; Shang, W.; Jiang, L.; Liu, W.; He, S.; Shen, Y.; Shi, L.; et al. ClO2 Prolongs the Vase Life of Paeonia lactiflora ‘Hushui Dangxia’ Cut Flowers by Inhibiting Bacterial Growth at the Stem Base. Horticulturae 2024, 10, 732. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10070732

AMA Style

Wang H, Zhang Y, Song Y, Zhu J, Shang W, Jiang L, Liu W, He S, Shen Y, Shi L, et al. ClO2 Prolongs the Vase Life of Paeonia lactiflora ‘Hushui Dangxia’ Cut Flowers by Inhibiting Bacterial Growth at the Stem Base. Horticulturae. 2024; 10(7):732. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10070732

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Hongwei, Yan Zhang, Yinglong Song, Jiale Zhu, Wenqian Shang, Liwei Jiang, Weichao Liu, Songlin He, Yuxiao Shen, Liyun Shi, and et al. 2024. "ClO2 Prolongs the Vase Life of Paeonia lactiflora ‘Hushui Dangxia’ Cut Flowers by Inhibiting Bacterial Growth at the Stem Base" Horticulturae 10, no. 7: 732. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10070732

APA Style

Wang, H., Zhang, Y., Song, Y., Zhu, J., Shang, W., Jiang, L., Liu, W., He, S., Shen, Y., Shi, L., & Wang, Z. (2024). ClO2 Prolongs the Vase Life of Paeonia lactiflora ‘Hushui Dangxia’ Cut Flowers by Inhibiting Bacterial Growth at the Stem Base. Horticulturae, 10(7), 732. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10070732

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