Nurses’ Death Anxiety and Ageism towards Older Adults Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Moderating Role of Symbolic Immortality
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Research Question
3. Research Hypothesis
4. Methods
4.1. Design and Sample
4.2. Study Measures
4.3. Data Collection
4.4. Data Analysis
5. Results
5.1. Participants’ Demographic Characteristics
5.2. Description of the Nurses’ Mean Scores
5.3. Comparisons Based on the Selected Sociodemographic/Professional Characteristics
5.4. Predictors of Nurses’ Ageism
6. Discussion
6.1. Implications for Research and Practice
6.2. Study Limitations
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Higgs, P.; Gilleard, C. The ideology of ageism versus the social imaginary of the fourth age: Two differing approaches to the negative contexts of old age. Ageing Soc. 2020, 40, 1617–1630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ben-Harush, A.; Shiovitz-Ezra, S.; Doron, I.; Alon, S.; Leibovitz, A.; Golander, H.; Haron, Y.; Ayalon, L. Ageism among physicians, nurses, and social workers: Findings from a qualitative study. Eur. J. Ageing 2017, 14, 39–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Schroyen, S.; Missotten, P.; Jerusalem, G.; Gilles, C.; Adam, S. Ageism and caring attitudes among nurses in oncology. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2016, 28, 749–757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Reynolds, L. The COVID-19 pandemic exposes limited understanding of ageism. J. Aging Soc. Policy 2020, 32, 499–505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Previtali, F.; Allen, L.D.; Varlamova, M. Not only virus spread: The diffusion of ageism during the outbreak of COVID-19. J. Aging Soc. Policy 2020, 32, 506–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ayalon, L.; Chasteen, A.; Diehl, M.; Levy, B.R.; Neupert, S.D.; Rothermund, K.; Tesch-Römer, C.; Wahl, H.-W. Aging in Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Avoiding Ageism and Fostering Intergenerational Solidarity; Oxford University Press US: Oxford, UK, 2021; Volume 76, pp. e49–e52. [Google Scholar]
- Hirakawa, Y.; Saif-Ur-Rahman, K. Exploration of etiological perspectives for ageism in geriatric care: A qualitative analysis of the most popular ageism scales. Geriatr. Gerontol. Int. 2020, 20, 1242–1243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rababa, M.; Hammouri, A.M.; Hweidi, I.M.; Ellis, J.L. Association of nurses’ level of knowledge and attitudes to ageism toward older adults: Cross-sectional study. Nurs. Health Sci. 2020, 22, 593–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bodner, E.; Shrira, A.; Bergman, Y.S.; Cohen-Fridel, S.; Grossman, E.S. The interaction between aging and death anxieties predicts ageism. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2015, 86, 15–19. [Google Scholar]
- Helm, P.J.; Duchschere, J.E.; Greenberg, J. Treating low self-esteem: Cognitive behavioural therapies and terror management theory. Curing Dread Death Theory Res. Pract. 2018, 16, 219–237. [Google Scholar]
- Martens, A.; Goldenberg, J.L.; Greenberg, J. A terror management perspective on ageism. J. Soc. Issues 2005, 61, 223–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martens, A.; Greenberg, J.; Schimel, J.; Landau, M.J. Ageism and death: Effects of mortality salience and perceived similarity to elders on reactions to elderly people. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 2004, 30, 1524–1536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chen, X.; Liu, T.; Li, P.; Wei, W.; Chao, M. The relationship between media involvement and death anxiety of self-quarantined people in the COVID-19 outbreak in China: The mediating roles of empathy and sympathy. Omega-J. Death Dying 2020, 30222820960283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Surall, V.; Steppacher, I. How to deal with death: An empirical path analysis of a simplified model of death anxiety. Omega-J. Death Dying 2020, 82, 261–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cooney, C.; Minahan, J.; Siedlecki, K.L. Do feelings and knowledge about aging predict ageism? J. Appl. Gerontol. 2021, 40, 28–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rababa, M.; Alhawatmeh, H.; Al Ali, N.; Kassab, M. Testing the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy in relieving nurses’ ageism toward older adults: A randomized controlled trial. Cogn. Ther. Res. 2021, 45, 355–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheong, C.Y.; Ha, N.H.L.; Tan, L.L.C.; Low, J.A. Attitudes towards the dying and death anxiety in acute care nurses—Can a workshop make any difference? A mixed-methods evaluation. Palliat. Support. Care 2020, 18, 164–169. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Pehlivan, S.; Lafçı, D.; Vatansever, N.; Yıldız, E. Relationship between death anxiety of Turkish nurses and their attitudes toward the dying patients. Omega-J. Death Dying 2020, 82, 128–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, P.; West, S.G.; Aiken, L.S. Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences; Psychology Press: New York, NY, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Fraboni, M.; Saltstone, R.; Hughes, S. The Fraboni Scale of Ageism (FSA): An attempt at a more precise measure of ageism. Can. J. Aging/La Rev. Can. Du Vieil. 1990, 9, 56–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lester, D.; Abdel-Khalek, A. The Lester-Collett Fear of Death scale: A correction. Death Stud. 2003, 27, 81–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drolet, J.L. Transcending death during early adulthood: Symbolic immortality, death anxiety, and purpose in life. J. Clin. Psychol. 1990, 46, 148–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayes, A.F. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach; Guilford Publications: New York, NY, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Dadfar, M.; Abdel-Khalek, A.M.; Lester, D. Psychometric characteristics of the Reasons for Death Fear Scale among Iranian nurses. Int. J. Nurs. Sci. 2017, 4, 384–388. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Smith, L.M.; Kasser, T. Mortality salience increases defensive distancing from people with terminal cancer. Death Stud. 2014, 38, 44–53. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Santos, P.I.; Figueiredo, E.; Gomes, I.; Sequeiros, J. Death anxiety and symbolic immortality in relatives at risk for familial amyloid polyneuropathy Type I (FAP I, ATTR V30M). J. Genet. Couns. 2010, 19, 585–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dechesne, M.; Pyszczynski, T.; Arndt, J.; Ransom, S.; Sheldon, K.M.; Van Knippenberg, A.; Janssen, J. Literal and symbolic immortality: The effect of evidence of literal immortality on self-esteem striving in response to mortality salience. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2003, 84, 722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vail, K.E., III; Soenke, M.; Waggoner, B. Terror management theory and religious belief. In Handbook of Terror Management Theory; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2019; pp. 259–285. [Google Scholar]
- Mohammadzadeh, A.; Najafi, M. The comparison of death anxiety, obsession, and depression between Muslim population with positive and negative religious coping. J. Relig. Health 2020, 59, 1055–1064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Solaimanizadeh, F.; Mohammadinia, N.; Solaimanizadeh, L. The relationship between spiritual health and religious coping with death anxiety in the elderly. J. Relig. Health 2020, 59, 1925–1932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yaghoobzadeh, A.; Navab, E.; Mirlashari, J.; Nasrabadi, A.N.; Goudarzian, A.H.; Allen, K.A.; Pourmollamirza, A. Factors moderating the influence of intergenerational contact on ageism: A systematic review. J. Psychosoc. Nurs. Ment. Health Serv. 2020, 58, 48–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, P.; Fu, J.-B.; Li, K.-F.; Liu, J.-N.; Wang, H.-L.; Liu, L.-J.; Chen, Y.; Zhang, Y.-L.; Liu, S.-L.; Tang, A. Transmission of COVID-19 in the terminal stages of the incubation period: A familial cluster. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, 96, 452–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barnett, M.D.; Adams, C.M. Ageism and aging anxiety among young adults: Relationships with contact, knowledge, fear of death, and optimism. Educ. Gerontol. 2018, 44, 693–700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saleem, T.; Saleem, S. Religiosity and death anxiety: A study of Muslim dars attendees. J. Relig. Health 2020, 59, 309–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stella, M. Befriending death: A mindfulness-based approach to cultivating self-awareness in counselling students. Death Stud. 2016, 40, 32–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kissane, D.W.; Grabsch, B.; Clarke, D.M.; Christie, G.; Clifton, D.; Gold, S.; Hill, C.; Morgan, A.; McDermott, F.; Smith, G.C. Supportive-expressive group therapy: The transformation of existential ambivalence into creative living while enhancing adherence to anti-cancer therapies. Psychooncology 2004, 13, 755–768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sociodemographic and Professional Characteristics | n | % |
---|---|---|
Gender | ||
Female | 89 | 54.4 |
Male | 74 | 45.4 |
Marital Status | ||
Single | 58 | 35.6 |
Married | 105 | 64.4 |
Level of Education | ||
Bachelor of Science in Nursing | 120 | 73.6 |
Master of Science in Nursing | 43 | 26.4 |
Level of Experience | ||
Senior (> 5 years of clinical experience) | 82 | 50.3 |
Junior (≤ 5 years of clinical experience) | 81 | 49.7 |
Working Department | ||
Medical/Surgical | 82 | 50.3 |
Intensive Care Unit/Critical Care Unit | 46 | 28.2 |
Emergency Room | 35 | 21.5 |
Mean | SD | |
Age | 30.47 | 5.04 |
Symbolic immortality | 97.27 | 21.52 |
Death anxiety | 96.93 | 23.69 |
Ageism | 83.09 | 20.21 |
Variables | Work Department | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Med/Surg M (SD) | ICU/CCU M (SD) | ER | F | Partial η2 | |
Combined effect a | 2.5 * | 0.06 | |||
Symbolic immortality | 105.6 (23.3) | 88.4 (22.6) | 98.7 (18.3) | 7.2 * | 0.08 |
Death anxiety | 87.7 (20.9) | 102.2 (23.2) | 97.9 (24.2) | 4.0 * | 0.05 |
Ageism | 77.2 (14.7) | 88.7 (17.7) | 82.5 (22.7) | 3.4 * | 0.04 |
Variable | β | s.e. | t | p | (95% Cl) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | |||||
Death anxiety (centered) | 1.040 | 0.228 | 4.553 | <0.001 | [0.5889, 1.4911] |
Symbolic immortality | −0.161 | 0.067 | −2.389 | 0.018 | [−0.2942, −0.0279] |
Death anxiety–symbolic immortality interaction | −0.005 | 0.002 | −2.266 | 0.025 | [−0.0091, −0.0006] |
Model 2 | |||||
Death anxiety (centered) | 1.058 | 0.232 | 4.545 | <0.001 | [0.5986, 1.5187] |
Symbolic immortality | −0.150 | 0.069 | −2.190 | 0.030 | [−0.2853, −0.0147] |
Death anxiety–symbolic immortality interaction | −0.005 | 0.002 | −2.238 | 0.027 | [−0.0092, −0.0006] |
Work department | −1.115 | 1.996 | −0.559 | 0.577 | [−5.0588, 2.8282] |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Rababa, M.; Al-Sabbah, S.; Bani-Hamad, D. Nurses’ Death Anxiety and Ageism towards Older Adults Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Moderating Role of Symbolic Immortality. Geriatrics 2022, 7, 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/geriatrics7030063
Rababa M, Al-Sabbah S, Bani-Hamad D. Nurses’ Death Anxiety and Ageism towards Older Adults Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Moderating Role of Symbolic Immortality. Geriatrics. 2022; 7(3):63. https://doi.org/10.3390/geriatrics7030063
Chicago/Turabian StyleRababa, Mohammad, Shatha Al-Sabbah, and Dania Bani-Hamad. 2022. "Nurses’ Death Anxiety and Ageism towards Older Adults Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Moderating Role of Symbolic Immortality" Geriatrics 7, no. 3: 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/geriatrics7030063
APA StyleRababa, M., Al-Sabbah, S., & Bani-Hamad, D. (2022). Nurses’ Death Anxiety and Ageism towards Older Adults Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Moderating Role of Symbolic Immortality. Geriatrics, 7(3), 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/geriatrics7030063