Next Article in Journal
Identifying the Major Hydrogeochemical Factors Governing Groundwater Chemistry in the Coastal Aquifers of Southwest Bangladesh Using Statistical Analysis
Previous Article in Journal
The Long-Term ERA5 Data Series for Trend Analysis of Rainfall in Italy
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Hydrology
Volume 9
Issue 2
10.3390/hydrology9020019
hydrology-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Hydrological Modeling for Flood Adaptation under Climate Change: The Case of the Ancient Messene Archaeological Site in Greece

by
Angeliki Mentzafou
* and
Elias Dimitriou
Hellenic Centre for Marine Research—H.C.M.R., Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, 19013 Anavyssos, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Hydrology 2022, 9(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9020019
Submission received: 24 December 2021 / Revised: 22 January 2022 / Accepted: 26 January 2022 / Published: 30 January 2022
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
There is a growing global awareness about the impacts of climate change on cultural and natural heritage sites. In Greece—a homeland of important historical and cultural resources—archaeological sites are vulnerable to climate change-related flood events. In order to investigate the flood risk of the archaeological site of Ancient Messene under different climate change projections, a physically-based hydrological model was implemented and six climate change scenarios were examined. Additionally, the effectiveness of a soft structural nature-based solution adaption plan was evaluated. Based on the results, the archaeological site of Ancient Messene is shielded against small or larger flood events and only in case of extreme precipitation events is the area likely to be at risk. This flood risk can be further eliminated after implementing the soft structural nature-based solution adaptation plan proposed. Nature-based solutions provide a cost-effective alternative approach for flood risk reduction and climate change adaptation, with minimum possible disturbance, while hydrological modeling, even in case of data scarcity, constitute a valuable tool for flood risk estimation and adaptation plan management. Nature-based solutions seems to be most effective against small or medium precipitation events, and to limit the damages of extreme events. Their benefits for flood adaptation should not be underestimated.

1. Introduction

Cultural heritage sites and monuments have been identified as having historical, scientific, or other forms of significance and, therefore, they need to be protected and preserved for future generations [1]. Globally, cultural heritage sites are subjected to possible disasters and suffer from the adverse effects of natural and/or human-induced hazards [2], which increase their vulnerability [3]. Floods have been identified as being one of the major hazards and potentially devastating natural events, which may result in different degrees of damage or, less commonly, total destruction of cultural heritage sites [4].
Flood risk and impacts are expected to intensify due to human activities and climate change [2,5]. Disaster risk management and climate change adaptation, with regard to cultural heritage preservation, has been highlighted at the United Nations (UN) Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 [6] and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Sustainable Development Goal 11.4 Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage) [7]. Subsequently, at the European level, the Flood Directive 2007/60/EC supports the assessment and management of flood risks, aiming at reducing the adverse consequences for, among others, cultural heritage [8], while the European Union (EU) Action Plan on the Sendai Framework underlines the need to develop good practices, regarding the essential integration of cultural heritage in national disaster risk reduction strategies in EU Member States [9].
In Greece, the impact of climate change on cultural and historical sites is already evident. Longer and more intense summer droughts were responsible for the summer fires in 2021, which threatened Ancient Olympia in Peloponnese, and increased erosion risk [10]. The Temple of Apollo Epikourios at Bassae in Peloponnese is extremely vulnerable to extreme weather conditions, especially storms and increased daily temperature variance [11]. Landslides threaten the Acropolis of Ancient Siphai in Boeotia, while floods cause damage in archaeological sites, such as the Sanctuary of the Great Gods at Samothrace Inland [12]. Finally, Delos archaeological site is subjected to multiple climate change-related hazards, such as the submersion of antiquities, caused by the combination of a higher sea level and rainwater, and marble damage, due to sea and wind erosion [13].
For this reason, the awareness of climate change impact on cultural and natural heritage sites has recently risen in Greece. In the National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change of Greece, adaptation actions (regarding cultural heritage) were proposed [14]. In 2019, an international scientific conference for the protection of cultural heritage from the impacts of climate change was organized in Greece (“Impacts of climate change on cultural heritage: Facing the challenge”, 21–22 June 2019, Athens) [15]. The conclusions and outcomes were subsequently circulated as an official document of the UN General Assembly [16] and the proposal “Addressing climate change impacts on cultural and natural heritage” was launched [17]. Furthermore, a coordinator unit housed at the Academy of Athens for the implementation and support of the international initiative of Greece, in the context of the UN Summit [17] for the protection of cultural heritage and monuments of nature from the impacts of climate change, was established in 2021 [15,18].
Nature-based solutions (NBSs) for flood risk reduction and climate change adaptation have emerged as alternatives to traditional approaches and can help mitigate flood risk, decrease vulnerability to climate change, and benefit the environment and local communities [19]. NBSs can be used to meet the main flood risk management objectives, e.g., reduction of flood flows, enhance resistance in waterways, and eventually adapt to floods [20]. Most NBSs for water involve the conservation, restoration, and management of existing natural and seminatural landscapes, through non-structural or structural interventions, or a combination of both [21].
Under this scope, recently, several research projects in Greece have focused on the study of climate change impacts, and especially flood events, on cultural heritage sites and archaeological monuments, such as Ancient Olympia [22], the archaeological site of Dion [23], and the archaeological site of Ancient Messene [24]. In the present paper, in order to investigate the flood risk of the archaeological site of Ancient Messene under different climate change projections, a physically-based hydrological model (MIKE SHE 2020) was implemented and six (6) climate change scenarios from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic Change (IPCC) were examined. Additionally, the effectiveness of a soft structural nature-based solution (NBS) adaptation plan that would increase infiltration locally and restore the old flow path of surface runoff was evaluated. The main objective of the present study is (a) to have a better understanding of the vulnerabilities of archaeological sites regarding flood risk to possible future climate change; and (b) to investigate the effectiveness of an adaptation plan and a mild intervention at the archaeological site in order to increase flood resilience.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Flood Vulnerability

Ancient Messene is located at the southwestern part of Peloponnese in Greece, south of the village Mavrommati or Ancient Messene (Figure 1a). The archaeological site of Ancient Messene was declared as a protected archeological site under national legislation [25,26], and it is included on Greece’s tentative list of sites and monuments for potential nomination for UNESCO World Heritage status [27]. Although the area has been inhabited since the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age and during the 9th and 8th centuries BC, the city of Ancient Messene is mainly known for its architectural monuments, built following its foundation in 369 BC by the Theban general Epaminondas [28,29].
The catchment area of Ancient Messene is 3.2 km2. The average altitude of the catchment is 420 m, and the average slope is 35%. The main anthropogenic activities are agricultural (50% of the area), while 5% is covered by artificial surfaces (discontinuous urban fabric and road network), and 40% is covered by forest. The archaeological site of Ancient Messene covers 5% of the catchment area (Greek Payment Authority of Common Agricultural Policy Aid Schemes—OPEKEPE [30]). The northern part of the catchment is structed by limestones, while the central and southern parts are structured by porous formations of small thickness, overlaying impervious formations (calcareous sandstone and radiolarite) [31]; therefore, the unconfined aquifer of the wider area is of low capacity and the groundwater recharge through infiltration is limited [32].
Two anonymous streams of northeast–southwest directions cross the archeological site (Figure 1a). The smaller stream of northeast–southwest direction crosses the northeastern part of the archeological site, south of the Theater, and meets the eastern stream at the southwestern part of the catchment (Figure 1a). The most important stream in the east traverses the archeological site from the northeast to the southwest, the Agora and the Stadium in particular (Figure 1b). Based on geomorphological and photogeological evidence, during the antiquity, the streambed of this anonymous stream was likely located at the eastern part of the Ancient Messene, but since then, the stream changed its course [32]. Indeed, based on maps and archives of travelogues since the nineteenth-century travelers in Greek inland, the remains of a small streambed on the eastern part of the archeological site of Ancient Messene, with a northeast–southwest direction, is evident [33,34,35]. This old streambed was likely aggraded and is, nowadays, not visible [32]. The stream is mainly recharged by surface runoff and the Klepsidra or Kalliroi karstic spring (National Register of Water Abstraction Points code: EMSY 0100005761059) located on the north, near Mavrommati village. The discharge of the Klepsidra spring ranges between 5 and 70 m3/h during dry and wet periods, respectively [32]; nowadays, the water is partially harvested for domestic use [36].
The archaeological site of Ancient Messene had been occasionally subjected to flood events, leading to the partial aggregation of the area with debris, and to the need for an extensive excavation program that started in 1895 by the Archaeological Society of Athens (and is being conducting to this today) [37]. One such two-day flood event took place in November 1909, during which the ancient Arsinoi Fountain and parts of the archaeological site that were (then) recently excavated were buried again under debris [38]. In order to protect the Asklepieion monument between the Agora and the Stadium, the eastern stream was partially diverted. A drainage ditch was constructed in 1969 after the suggestion (and supervision) of the archeologist, Orlandos [39] (Figure 2a). The diversion was constructed in hard bedrock about 30 m west of the monument, and has a northeast–southwest direction, 230 m length, 2 m width, and 0.6 m depth [32].
The drainage ditch is only partially effective since it was constructed focusing on the protection of the Asklepieion monument alone, while after heavy rainfalls, the other archeological sites are still flood prone [32]. Indeed, between 6 and 9 September 2016, another flood event took place, attributed to a cut-off upper level low located southwest of the country that caused severe thunderstorms with heavy rainfalls, floods, landslides and, locally, tornadoes [41]. The flood event affected the wider area of the Messenia regional unit the night of 6 September, it peaked on 7 September, and continued until the morning of 8 September (Table 1). The closest to the Ancient Messene operational meteorological station (National Observatory of Athens-NOA, Arfara station, LGU6), recorded 279 mm of cumulative precipitation during the period 6–8 September 2016 [42].

2.2. Flood Modeling

Hydrological models are useful tools used to assess climate change impacts and flood risks for the development of adaptation strategies [43]; they have been successfully used for the better understanding of nature, and to provide analytical tools to water managers and design engineers for risk assessment, and project planning and implementation [44]. In particular, in concerning NBSs, hydrological models are often used to quantify the hydrologic impacts of potential NBSs within watersheds [21,45]. The modeling tool used in the present study for the simulation of floods in Ancient Messene was MIKE SHE 2020, developed by the Danish Hydraulic Institute Water and Environment–DHI Water and Environment, a built-on coupled physics-based model for overland flow, unsaturated flow, ground water flow, and a fully dynamic channel flow, including all of the complex feedbacks and interactions [46,47]. MIKE SHE was successfully used in many studies to simulate the potential of NBSs for mitigating flood risks and climate change impacts (e.g., [45,48,49]).
The model was first set-up for the period 2013–2016. The model domain was chosen to be the entire hydrological catchment of the archaeological site of Ancient Messene. The grid cell size was 2 m, so as to combine the best possible accuracy and model speed. The topography of the study area was retrieved from the most detailed elevation data available (digital elevation model (DEM) with a grid size 2 × 2 m from National Cadastre S.A., derived from the large scale orthophoto maps 25-LSO25 project [50]). The necessary information concerning land cover was retrieved from the corresponding 1:5000 scale dataset of the Greek Payment Authority of Common Agricultural Policy Aid Schemes (OPEKEPE); these data were developed after aerial imagery of the year 2016 photointerpretation and are considered the most detailed [30].
Due to lack of climatological data (precipitation, temperature) of high temporal resolutions, a daily time step was used for flood modeling, and the data from Arfara meteorological station (NOA, LGU6), the closest to the study area, and most reliable, were used as forcing for the model. The lack of relative humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed precluded the use of the Penman–Monteith equation for the estimation of daily reference evapotranspiration (ET). Therefore, ET was estimated using the Hargreaves empirical approach [51], which provides satisfactory results with an error rate of 10–15% or 1 mm/d, whichever is greater [52,53].
The model was calibrated for the flood event of 6–8 September 2016. Since conventional flood-related data (water depth measurements or high-water marks of the most affected areas) were not available, the model calibration procedure was based on qualitative data regarding the spatial distribution of the water inundation after the flood event (photographs and reports or press publications) and eye-witness observations regarding the flood peak. Based on these reports, the western part of Agora, Vasiliki, the central part of Asklepieion, and the northern part of the Stadium were inundated on 8 September 2016 (Figure 2b–d).
Subsequently, six (6) climate change scenarios adopted from IPCC future projections concerning climatic variables were examined. Based on the fifth assessment report (AR5), four different twenty-first century pathways of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, atmospheric concentrations, air pollutant emissions, and land-use changes can be projected. These pathways can be described by four representative concentration pathways (RCPs)—a stringent mitigation scenario (RCP2.6), two intermediate scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP6.0), and one scenario with very high GHG emissions (RCP8.5) [54]. Therefore, for the present study, three RCP scenarios (one stringent, one intermediate, and one extreme) for two time projections (2031–2060, near future period; 2071–2100, distant future period) were examined (Table 2). The necessary time series concerning daily precipitation (P) and minimum, mean, and maximum temperature (Tmin, Tmean, Tmax, respectively) were retrieved from the regional climate model RCA4 of the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute-SMHI [55] driven by the low-resolution (LR) version of Max Planck Institute Earth System Model (MPI-ESM-LR) of the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology (MPI) [56,57]. Potential evapotranspiration was estimated using again the Hargreaves approach [51]. The flood events occurring at the six (6) climate change scenarios examined were distinguished by examining the water depth at the site where the maximum water depth was observed during the 6–8 September 2016 flood event.
Finally, the effectiveness of a nature-based solution (NBS) flood adaptation plan proposed by Kampouroglou and Chatzitheodorou [32], for the protection of the archaeological site of Ancient Messene, was examined (Figure 2). Based on this flood protection study, a soft structural NBS plan that would locally increase the infiltration rate, restore the initial watercourse, and drain the storm water on the eastern part of the archaeological site was proposed. The proposed construction consisted of a 50 m long, 3.75 m deep, and 1.0 m wide infiltration ditch filled with cobble or boulder and gravels, and covered with clayey layer of 20–25 cm thickness, which would lead the subsurface flow to a 410 m long, 1.20 m deep, and 1.10 m wide drainage ditch [32]. In order to incorporate these interventions to the model, the topography in the intervention area was adjusted based on the geometry of the proposed projects, and the ponded drainage module that allowed the storm water drainage to local depressions was enabled in MIKE SHE [47].

3. Results

3.1. Flood Modeling

Based on the results of the flood modeling, the phenomenon started on 7 September 2016, and gradually retreated until 15 September 2016. The maximum water depth was noted at the Agora southwestern part and reached 0.6 m on 8 September 2016 (Figure 3, Figure 4a and Figure 5a; Table 3). As mentioned above, the cumulative precipitation during the period from the 6 to 8 September 2016, was 279 mm. Additionally, based on the results, the central and southwestern part of Agora site, Vasiliki, the central part of Asklepieion and the northern part of the Stadium were inundated during the 6–8 September 2016, flood event (Figure 4a). This agrees with the photographs and the press reports regarding the specific flood event (Figure 3). The total inundated area at the archaeological site of Ancient Messene was calculated to be 5.1 × 103 m2 on 8 September 2016.
It should be noted that there is a one-day time lag between precipitation and water depth that can be attributed to the coarse temporal resolution of the precipitation dataset.

3.2. Climate Change Scenarios

In Figure 6, the water depths at the Agora site (maximum water depth site at Agora; see Figure 2) for the climate change projections examined are presented. Based on the simulation results, flood events occurred only at climate change scenarios Sc2 (one flood event) and Sc3 (two flood events). More specifically, and after a more detailed examination of the flood events highlighted, the following can be reported:
Based on the results, during the reference period (1971–2000 reference period, P 1037.4 mm, ET 1128.3 mm) no flood event occurred in the archaeological site of Ancient Messene.
Likewise, during climate change scenario Sc1 (2031–2060 near future period, RCP2.6–stringent scenario, P 874.0 mm, ET 1183.5 mm) no flood event occurred in the archaeological site of Ancient Messene.
During climate change scenario Sc2 (2071–2100 distant future period, RCP2.6–stringent scenario, P 1107.0 mm, ET 1175.1 mm), one flood event occurred between 24 and 27 October 2097, with cumulative precipitation amount of 161.7 mm. It should be noted that the period prior to this flood event (19–24 October 2097), the cumulative precipitation was 113.2 mm, leading to soil saturation that favored flooding. The flood occurred at Agora and the maximum depth was 0.2 m and the total inundated area at the archaeological site of Ancient Messene was 0.2 × 103 m2 on 23 October 2097 (Figure 4b and Figure 5b, Table 3).
During climate change scenario Sc3 (2031–2060 near future period, RCP4.5–intermediate scenario, P 946.9 mm, ET 1185.5 mm), two flood events occurred. The first was triggered by a 272.2 mm cumulative precipitation during the period 12–14 August 2033, and it lasted seven days (13–20 August 2033). The maximum depth at the Agora area was 0.6 m and the total inundated area was 4.1 × 103 m2 on 14 August 2033 (Figure 4c and Figure 5c, Table 3). The second flood event occurred between 29 October and 1 November 2047, and it can be attributed to 314.9 mm of cumulative precipitation during the period between 21 October and 3 November 2047. The maximum depth at Agora was 0.2 m and the total inundated area was 0.2 × 103 m2 on 29 October 2047 (Figure 4d and Figure 5d, Table 3).
During climate change scenario Sc4 (2071–2100 distant future period, RCP4.5–intermediate scenario, P 821.4 mm, ET 1199.7 mm), no flood event occurred in the archaeological site of Ancient Messene.
Likewise, during climate change scenario Sc5 (2031–2060 near future period, RCP8.5–extreme scenario, P 845.6 mm, ET 1196.6 mm), no flood event occurred.
Finally, during climate change scenario Sc6 (2071–2100 distant future period, RCP8.5–extreme scenario, P 606.9 mm, ET 1292.7 mm), no flood event occurred in the archaeological site of Ancient Messene.

3.3. Flood Adaptation Plan

Based on the results of the flood modeling after applying the adaptation plan proposed for flood protection of the archaeological site of Ancient Messene, for the flood event of 2016, the maximum water depth in the area of Agora decreased from 0.6 to 0.4 m and the inundated area in the archaeological site from 5.1 × 103 to 1.3 × 103 m2. Additionally, the Stadium and the Vasiliki were the high-risk areas (Table 3, Figure 4e). Nevertheless, the central part of Agora and the Asklepieion monument were not flooded.
Likewise, for the flood event in 2033 (Sc3), the maximum water depth in the area of Agora decreased from 0.6 to 0.3 m and the inundated area in the archaeological site from 4.1 × 103 to 0.5 × 103 m2 (Table 3, Figure 4g). In the specific scenario, the stadium, the Vasiliki, the Asklepieion, and the central part of Agora were not flooded.
The heavy precipitation events in 2097 (Sc2) and 2047 (Sc3) did not result in flooding events after the adaptation plan and the total inundated area in these scenarios were eliminated (Table 3; Figure 4f,h).

4. Discussion

There is a growing global awareness about the impacts of climate change on cultural and natural heritage sites. Greece, a homeland of important historical and cultural resources, which provide educational, aesthetic, scientific, spiritual, and recreation services [58], and consist tourist attractions that significantly contribute to the economic growth of the country [59], is vulnerable to future, extreme, climate change and global warming-related, flood events [60].
Based on the results, the flood prone sites of the archaeological site of Ancient Messene are the central and southwestern parts of Agora site, Vasiliki, the central part of Asklepieion, and the northern part of the Stadium. The primary mechanism triggering the floods can be associated with the surface runoff of the anonymous stream crossing the archaeological site.
The maximum water depth during the 2016 flood event occurred at the southwestern part of Agora, and reached 0.6 m on 8 September 2016. Likewise, based on the results of the Sc3 climate scenario simulation, a 3-day precipitation event of 272.2 mm of cumulative rainfall between 12 and 14 August 2033, resulted in a flood event with a maximum water depth of 0.6 m at Agora. Nevertheless, two four-days flood events (24–27 October 2097, Sc2 and 29 October–1 November 2047, Sc3) resulted from 274.9 and 314.9 mm of cumulative precipitation, respectively, and led to 0.22 and 0.21 m of maximum water depth at Agora, respectively. Precipitation intensity was a critical factor that affected flood generation mechanism. The precipitation events in 2016 (flood event 1) and Sc3 in 2033 (flood event 3) with high rainfall intensities (93.0 and 90.7 mm/d respectively) resulted in flood events, while the precipitation events Sc2 in 2097 (flood event 2) and Sc3 in 2047 (flood event 4) with low rainfall intensities (34.4 and 22.5 mm/d respectively) did not, although the cumulative precipitation was similar, and in the case of flood event 4—higher than the first two (Table 3).
It should be noted that, regarding the methodological approach adopted in the present study, uncertainties rise due to the lack of climatological data with high temporal resolution and the lack of conventional flood-related data (water depth measurements or high-water marks of the most affected areas) for the model calibration. In particular, the latter can lead to misevaluations regarding the detailed flood inundation mapping, which cannot be easily quantified in the present study. Nevertheless, simple binary (eye-witness) observations regarding the presence or absence of flooding in establishing a reliable model structure to predict the flood extent, when other data are not available, can be valuable [61], despite the uncertainties. Especially at vulnerable and valuable sites, such as sites of cultural heritage, which are usually not efficiently monitored, such approaches have proven to be valuable tools for the development of flood risk reduction and climate change adaptation strategies, since they provide enough data for decision making.

5. Conclusions

Cultural heritage sites, archaeological sites in particular, are vulnerable to climate change-related hazards, such as floods. In this study, flood risks at the archaeological site of Ancient Messene, under different climate change scenarios, were examined. Under this scope, a physically-based hydrological model (MIKE SHE 2020) was implemented for the flood event of September 2016 and six (6) climate change scenarios adopted from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic Change (IPCC) were examined. Finally, the effectiveness of a soft structural adaptation plan was examined.
Based on the present study, the archaeological site of Ancient Messene is shielded against small or larger storms; only in cases of extreme or high intensity precipitation events is the area likely to be at risk. This flood risk can be further eliminated after implementing a nature-based solution soft structural adaptation plan proposed for flood protection of the archaeological site. Based on the results, this intervention was able to completely extinguish the consequences of smaller precipitation events and limit the damages of extreme events.
Interventions to cultural and natural heritage sites with respect and understanding to the landscape and to their unique characters, can be challenging. NBSs provide cost-effective alternative approaches for flood risk reduction and climate change adaptation, with minimal possible disturbances. NBSs seem to be the most effective against small or medium precipitation events, which nevertheless are the largest contributors to overall flood impacts due to their frequent occurrences. Therefore, NBSs benefits for flood adaptation should not be underestimated.
Hydrological modeling, towards this scope, even in case of data scarcity, proved to constitute a valuable tool for the design and evaluation of such solutions, for flood risk estimation and adaptation plan management.

Author Contributions

Data curation, A.M.; formal analysis, A.M.; funding acquisition, E.D.; methodology, E.D.; resources, E.D.; validation, A.M.; visualization, A.M.; writing—original draft, A.M.; writing—review and editing, E.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was conducted under the project “LIFE-IP AdaptInGR–Boosting the implementation of adaptation policy across Greece LIFE17 IPC/GR/000006”, deliverable “Sub-Action C.4.2: Development of pilot assessments and adaptation guidelines for cultural heritage. Case Study: The Archaeological site of Ancient Messene”, with the contribution of the LIFE Programme of the European Union and of the Green Fund.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Restrictions apply to the availability of data related to this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Wijesuriya, G.; Thompson, J.; Young, C. Managing Cultural World Heritage; UNESCO/ICCROM/ICOMOS/IUCN: Paris, France, 2013; ISBN 9789230012236. [Google Scholar]
  2. Jigyasu, R.; King, J.; Wijesuriya, G. Managing Disaster Risks for World Heritage; UNESCO/ICCROM/ICOMOS/IUCN: Paris, France, 2010; ISBN 9789231041655. [Google Scholar]
  3. Nicu, I.C. Natural Hazards vs Cultural Heritage. In Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology; Smith, C., Ed.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; pp. 1–12. ISBN 9783319517261. [Google Scholar]
  4. Migon, P. Cultural Heritage and Natural Hazard. In Encyclopedia of Natural Hazards; Bobrowsky, P.T., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2013; pp. 5–24. ISBN 9781402043994. [Google Scholar]
  5. Ravankhah, M.; de Wit, R.; Argyriou, A.V.; Chliaoutakis, A.; Revez, M.J.; Birkmann, J.; Žuvela-Aloise, M.; Sarris, A.; Tzigounaki, A.; Giapitsoglou, K. Integrated Assessment of Natural Hazards, Including Climate Change’s Influences, for Cultural Heritage Sites: The Case of the Historic Centre of Rethymno in Greece. Int. J. Disaster Risk Sci. 2019, 10, 343–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. UNISDR-United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, 1st ed.; UNISDR: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  7. United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/70/1. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; United Nations General Assembly: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  8. European Commission Council Directive 2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2007 on the assessment and management of flood risks. Off. J. Eur. Union 2007, L 288, 27–34.
  9. European Commission Staff. Action Plan on the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. A Disaster Risk-Informed Approach for All EU Policies; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  10. Evelpidou, N.; Tzouxanioti, M.; Gavalas, T.; Spyrou, E.; Saitis, G.; Petropoulos, A.; Karkani, A. Assessment of Fire Effects on Surface Runoff Erosion Susceptibility: The Case of the Summer 2021 Forest Fires in Greece. Land 2022, 11, 21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Jeffreys, R. The shelter on the temple of Apollo Epikourios. In 23rd Biennial IIC Congress Conservation and the Eastern Mediterranean 20–24/09/2010; International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works: Instanbul, Turkey, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  12. Velani-Adam, P. Climate Change vs. Archaeological Sites and Monuments: An unequal battle. In International Conference Impacts of Climate Change on Cultural Heritage: Facing the Challenge, 21–22 June 2019; Academy of Athens-Research Center of Atmospheric Physics and Climatology: Athens, Greece, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  13. Athanasoulis, D.; Farnoux, A. Délos : Un patrimoine menacé par le changement climatique. In International Conference Impacts of Climate Change on Cultural Heritage: Facing the Challenge, 21–22 June 2019; Academy of Athens-Research Center of Atmospheric Physics and Climatology: Athens, Greece, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  14. Ministry of Environment and Energy of Greece. National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change of Greece; Ministry of Environment and Energy of Greece: Athens, Greece, 2016; ISBN 2013012911040. [Google Scholar]
  15. Academy of Athens. Research Center of Atmospheric Physics and Climatology International Conference “Impacts of climate change on cultural heritage: Facing the challenge”, Athens, Greece, 21–22 June 2019. Available online: https://ccich.gr/climate-change-impacts-on-cultural-heritage/ (accessed on 17 November 2021).
  16. Greece Letter Dated 28 June 2019 from the Pernament Representative of Greece to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General, A/73/938 2019, 4. Available online: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3812550?ln=fr (accessed on 17 November 2021).
  17. United Nations. Report of the Secretary-General on the 2019 Climate Action Summit and The Way Forward in 2020; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  18. Hellenic Republic Establishment of a Working Group (hereinafter referred to as Coordinator Unit) for the implementation and support of the international initiative of Greece in relation to the protection of cultural heritage and monuments of nature from the impacts of climate. Off. J. Gov. 2021, B, 3283–3284.
  19. World Bank. Implementing Nature Based Flood Protection: Principles and Implementation Guidance; The World Bank Group: Washington, DC, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  20. World Wildlife Fund. Natural and Nature-Based Flood Management: A Green Guide; WWF: Washington, DC, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  21. Brauman, K.A.; Bremer, L.L.; Hamel, P.; Ochoa-Tocachi, B.F.; Roman-Dañobeytia, F.; Bonnesoeur, V.; Arapa, E.; Gammie, G. Producing valuable information from hydrologic models of nature-based solutions for water. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. 2022, 18, 135–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. National and Kapodistrian University of Athens CLIMASCAPE Project. Available online: http://climascape.prd.uth.gr/ (accessed on 15 October 2021).
  23. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki-Department of Forestry and Natural Environmen XENIOS Project. Available online: https://xenios-project.eu/ (accessed on 15 October 2021).
  24. Ministry of Environment and Energy of Greece LIFE-IP AdaptInGR—Boosting the Implementation of Adaptation Policy across Greece. Available online: https://www.adaptivegreece.gr/ (accessed on 15 October 2021).
  25. Hellenic Republic Declaration of Ancient Messene archaeological site. Off. J. Gov. 1991, B, 585–586.
  26. Hellenic Republic Approval of the delimitation of the archeological site of Ancient Messina, Municipality of Messina, Peloponnese Region. Off. J. Gov. 2011, AAP, 2395–2399.
  27. Permanent Delegation of Greece to UNESCO. Archaeological site of Ancient Messene; UNESCO: Paris, France, 2014; p. 3. [Google Scholar]
  28. Themelis, P. Ancient Messene-An Important Site in SW Peloponnese. Aust. Archaeol. Inst. Athens-AAIA Bull. 2010, 7, 28–37. [Google Scholar]
  29. Themelis, P. Ancient Messene: Hystory-Monuments-people; Militos: Athens, Greece, 2010; ISBN 9780415475976. [Google Scholar]
  30. Hellenic Ministry of Environment and Energy. 1st Update of River Basin Management Plans of the River Basins of Western Peloponnese Water District (EL01). Analysis of the Anthropogenic Pressures and Their Effect on the Surface and Groundwater Waterbodies; Hellenic Ministry of Environment and Energy, Special Secretariat for Water: Athens, Greece, 2017; p. 380.
  31. IGME—Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration Geological Map of Greece, Sheet Meligalas, Scale 1:50.000; IGME: Athens, Greece, 1989.
  32. Kampouroglou, E.; Chatzitheodorou, T. Anticorrosive and flood protection study of Ancient Messene archaeological site [in Greek]. In Restoration-Conservation-Protection of Monuments and Sites, Technical Periodical Publication; Ministry of Culture of Greece: Athens, Greece, 1993; pp. 407–414. [Google Scholar]
  33. Blouet, G.A. Expédition Scientifique de Morée, Ordonnée Par le Gouvernement Français: Architecture, Sculptures, Inscriptions et Vues du Péloponèse, des Cyclades et de l’Atlantique, Premier Volume; Firmin Didot: Paris, France, 1831. [Google Scholar]
  34. Smith, W. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography; Walton and Maberly: London, UK, 1857; Volume II. [Google Scholar]
  35. Aldenhoven, F. Itineraire Descriptif de l’Attique et du Péloponèse, Avec Cartes et Plans Topographiques; Adolphe Nast: Athenes, Greece, 1854. [Google Scholar]
  36. Decentralised Administration of Peloponnese Western Greece & Ionian Islands Provision of Water Use Permits of 94 Existing (Boreholes & Springs) and Two (2) New Water Abstraction Points (Boreholes) for Domestic Use to The Municipal Water Supply and Sewerage Company of Messini (DEYAM). Available online: https://diavgeia.gov.gr/decision/view/9Θ09OΡ1Φ-15Φ (accessed on 16 July 2021).
  37. Kalogeropoulou, E.; Kyriakaki, G.; Makri, N. Giving Prominence To Excavating Discoveries of Ancient Messini. BSc Dissertation; Aggelis, G., Ed.; National Technical University of Athens, School of Architecture: Athens, Greece, 2021. (In Greek) [Google Scholar]
  38. Tharros Newspaper. “Tharros” 4 November 1909: Distructions at Ithomi—Villages Were Buried. Available online: https://www.tharrosnews.gr/2021/02/tharros-4-noemvriou-1909-katastrofai-en-ithomi-choria-paresyrthisan/ (accessed on 1 November 2021). (In Greek).
  39. Orlandos, A. Excavation of Messene. In Proceedings of the Archaeological Society of Athens of the Year 1969; Archaeological Society of Athens: Athens, Greece, 1971; pp. 98–120. (In Greek) [Google Scholar]
  40. Kolivari, N. Ancient Messene Will Be Closed Due to Flood. Available online: https://eleftheriaonline.gr/local/koinonia/item/103838-kleisti-gia-20-imeres-i-arxaia-messini-meta-tin-plimmyra-fotografies (accessed on 6 July 2021). (In Greek).
  41. Hellenic National Meteorological Service. Significant Weather and Climate Events in Greece 2016; Fragkouli, P.V., Ed.; Hellenic National Meteorological Servic: Athens, Greece, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  42. Papagiannaki, K.; Lagouvardos, K. Extreme Weather Events: 6–10 September 2016. Available online: https://meteo.gr/article_view.cfm?entryID=168 (accessed on 1 April 2021). (In Greek).
  43. Krysanova, V.; Donnelly, C.; Gelfan, A.; Gerten, D.; Arheimer, B.; Hattermann, F.; Kundzewicz, Z.W. How the performance of hydrological models relates to credibility of projections under climate change. Hydrol. Sci. J. 2018, 63, 696–720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Plate, E.J. HESS Opinions Classification of hydrological models for flood management. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2009, 13, 1939–1951. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  45. Kumar, P.; Debele, S.E.; Sahani, J.; Rawat, N.; Marti-Cardona, B.; Alfieri, S.M.; Basu, B.; Basu, A.S.; Bowyer, P.; Charizopoulos, N.; et al. Nature-based solutions efficiency evaluation against natural hazards: Modelling methods, advantages and limitations. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 784, 147058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Refsgaard, J.C.; Storm, B. Construction, calibration and validation of hydrological models. In Distributed Hydrological Modelling; Abbott, M.B., Refsgaard, J.C., Eds.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1996; pp. 41–54. [Google Scholar]
  47. DHI. MIKE SHE User Manual; Danish Hydraulic Institute: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  48. Thompson, J.R.; Iravani, H.; Clilverd, H.M.; Sayer, C.D.; Heppell, C.M.; Axmacher, J.C. Simulation of the hydrological impacts of climate change on a restored floodplain. Hydrol. Sci. J. 2017, 62, 2482–2510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Clilverd, H.M.; Thompson, J.R.; Heppell, C.M.; Sayer, C.D.; Axmacher, J.C. Coupled Hydrological/Hydraulic Modelling of River Restoration Impacts and Floodplain Hydrodynamics. River Res. Appl. 2016, 32, 1927–1948. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. National Cadastre, S.A. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Greece 2014–2016 (2m). 2020. [Google Scholar]
  51. Hargreaves, G.H.; Samani, Z.A. Reference Crop Evapotranspiration from Temperature. Appl. Eng. Agric. 1985, 1, 96–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Shuttleworth, W.J. Evaporation. In Handbook of Hydrology; Maidment, D.R., Ed.; McGraw-Hill Book Company: New York, NY, USA, 1993; pp. 4.1–4.53. [Google Scholar]
  53. Koutsoyiannis, D.; Xanthopoulos, T. Engineering Hydrology, 3rd ed.; National Technical University of Athens: Athens, Greece, 1999. (In Greek) [Google Scholar]
  54. IPCC Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R.K.; Meyer, L. (Eds.) IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2014; ISBN 9789291691432. [Google Scholar]
  55. Strandberg, G.; Bärring, L.; Hansson, U.; Jansson, C.; Jones, C.; Kjellström, E.; Kolax, M.; Kupiainen, M.; Nikulin, G.; Samuelsson, P.; et al. CORDEX Scenarios for Europe from the Rossby Centre Regional Climate Model RCA4; Report Meteorology and Climatology No. 116; Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute: Norrköping, Sweden, 2014. [Google Scholar]
  56. Giorgetta, M.A.; Jungclaus, J.; Reick, C.H.; Legutke, S.; Bader, J.; Böttinger, M.; Brovkin, V.; Crueger, T.; Esch, M.; Fieg, K.; et al. Climate and carbon cycle changes from 1850 to 2100 in MPI-ESM simulations for the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5. J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst. 2013, 5, 572–597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Popke, D.; Stevens, B.; Voigt, A. Climate and climate change in a radiative-convective equilibrium version of ECHAM6. J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst. 2013, 5, 32–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Vojinovic, Z.; Keerakamolchai, W.; Weesakul, S.; Pudar, R.S.; Medina, N.; Alves, A. Combining ecosystem services with cost-benefit analysis for selection of green and grey infrastructure for flood protection in a cultural setting. Environments 2017, 4, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Polyzos, S.; Arabatzis, G.; Tsiantikoudis, S. The attractiveness of archaeological sites in Greece: A spatial analysis. Int. J. Tour. Policy 2007, 1, 246–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Roudier, P.; Andersson, J.C.M.; Donnelly, C.; Feyen, L.; Greuell, W.; Ludwig, F. Projections of future floods and hydrological droughts in Europe under a +2 °C global warming. Clim. Change 2016, 135, 341–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  61. Werner, M.G.F. A comparison of flood extent modelling approaches through constraining uncertainties on gauge data. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2004, 8, 1141–1152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Hydrology 09 00019 g001 550
Figure 1. Catchment area (a) and detailed plan (b) of the Ancient Messene archeological site.
Figure 1. Catchment area (a) and detailed plan (b) of the Ancient Messene archeological site.
Hydrology 09 00019 g001
Hydrology 09 00019 g002 550
Figure 2. (a) Detailed plan of the Ancient Messene archeological site; (b) debris deposition related to the 6–8 September 2016, flood event [40]; (c) aspect of the flooded Temple at Agora on 8 September 2016 [40]; and (d) aspect of the flooded archeological site from upstream on 8 September 2016 [40].
Figure 2. (a) Detailed plan of the Ancient Messene archeological site; (b) debris deposition related to the 6–8 September 2016, flood event [40]; (c) aspect of the flooded Temple at Agora on 8 September 2016 [40]; and (d) aspect of the flooded archeological site from upstream on 8 September 2016 [40].
Hydrology 09 00019 g002
Hydrology 09 00019 g003 550
Figure 3. Documented and simulated inundated area of the Ancient Messene archeological site on 8 September 2016.
Figure 3. Documented and simulated inundated area of the Ancient Messene archeological site on 8 September 2016.
Hydrology 09 00019 g003
Hydrology 09 00019 g004 550
Figure 4. Results of the flood modeling—maximum water depth spatial distribution for the flood events examined before the flood adaptation plan (a) on 8 September 2016; (b) on 25 October 2097 (Sc2); (c) on 14 August 2033 (Sc3); (d) on 29 October 2047 (Sc3); and after the flood adaptation plan (e) on 8 September 2016; (f) on 23 October 2097 (Sc2); (g) on 14 August 2033 (Sc3); and (h) 29 October 2047 (Sc3).
Figure 4. Results of the flood modeling—maximum water depth spatial distribution for the flood events examined before the flood adaptation plan (a) on 8 September 2016; (b) on 25 October 2097 (Sc2); (c) on 14 August 2033 (Sc3); (d) on 29 October 2047 (Sc3); and after the flood adaptation plan (e) on 8 September 2016; (f) on 23 October 2097 (Sc2); (g) on 14 August 2033 (Sc3); and (h) 29 October 2047 (Sc3).
Hydrology 09 00019 g004
Hydrology 09 00019 g005 550
Figure 5. Results of the flood modeling. Precipitation vs. maximum water depth, before and after the flood adaptation plan, at the Agora site (maximum water depth site; see Figure 2); (a) of the 6–8 September 2016 flood event; (b) of the Sc2 19–24 October 2097 flood event; (c) of the Sc3 12–14 August 2033 flood event; and (d) of the Sc3 29 October–1 November 2047, flood event.
Figure 5. Results of the flood modeling. Precipitation vs. maximum water depth, before and after the flood adaptation plan, at the Agora site (maximum water depth site; see Figure 2); (a) of the 6–8 September 2016 flood event; (b) of the Sc2 19–24 October 2097 flood event; (c) of the Sc3 12–14 August 2033 flood event; and (d) of the Sc3 29 October–1 November 2047, flood event.
Hydrology 09 00019 g005
Hydrology 09 00019 g006 550
Figure 6. Results of the climate change scenario flood modeling. Water depth at the Agora site (maximum water depth site; see Figure 2).
Figure 6. Results of the climate change scenario flood modeling. Water depth at the Agora site (maximum water depth site; see Figure 2).
Hydrology 09 00019 g006
Table
Table 1. Development of the flood event that took place between 6 and 8 September 2016, in Messenia regional unit (Hellenic National Meteorological Service-HNMS, Kalamata station, WMO-ID: 16726).
Table 1. Development of the flood event that took place between 6 and 8 September 2016, in Messenia regional unit (Hellenic National Meteorological Service-HNMS, Kalamata station, WMO-ID: 16726).
DateTimePrecipitation (mm)
5 September 201606:000
12:000
18:000
6 September 201600:000
06:000
12:0014.0/6 h
18:0055.0/12 h
7 September 201600:006.0/6 h
06:00132.6/24 h, 78.0/12 h
12:009.0/6 h
18:009.0/12 h
8 September 201600:000.0/6 h
06:0091.0/24 h, 0.4/12 h
12:00Trace/6 h
18:00Trace/12 h
9 September 201600:000.0/6 h
06:000.0/12 h, Trace/24 h
12:000.0/6 h
18:000.0/12 h
10 September 201600:000.0/6 h
Table
Table 2. Climate change scenarios investigated.
Table 2. Climate change scenarios investigated.
ScenarioPeriodRCPsMean Annual Precipitation (mm)Mean Annual Potential Evapotranspiration (mm)Mean Annual Temperature (°C)
MinimumMeanMaximum
Reference1971–2000-1037.41128.39.814.819.9
Sc12031–2060RCP 2.6874.01183.511.116.121.3
Sc22071–2100RCP 2.61107.01175.110.815.921.1
Sc32031–2060RCP 4.5946.91185.511.416.421.5
Sc42071–2100RCP 4.5821.41199.711.716.721.8
Sc52031–2060RCP 8.5845.61196.611.616.621.8
Sc62071–2100RCP 8.5606.91292.714.119.124.4
Table
Table 3. Investigated flood events at the archaeological site of Ancient Messene.
Table 3. Investigated flood events at the archaeological site of Ancient Messene.
Flood Event1234
ScenarioReal EventSc2Sc3Sc3
Precipitation dates6–8 September 2016 19–26 October 209712–14 August 203321 October–3 November 2047
Cumulative precipitation (mm)279.0274.9272.2314.9
Precipitation duration (d)38314
Precipitation intensity (mm/d)93.034.490.722.5
Before adaptation plan
Flood dates7–15 September 201624–27 October 209713–19 August 203329 October–1 November 2047
Flood duration (d)9484
Date of flood peak8 September 2016 23 October 209714 August 203329 October 2047
Maximum water depth (m)0.60.20.60.2
Maximum inundated area (×103 m2)5.10.24.10.2
After adaptation plan
Flood dates7–12 September 2016-13–17 August 2033-
Flood duration (d)6050
Date of flood peak8 September 2016 25 October 209714 August 203329 October 2047
Maximum water depth (m)0.400.30
Maximum inundated area (×103 m2)1.300.50
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Mentzafou, A.; Dimitriou, E. Hydrological Modeling for Flood Adaptation under Climate Change: The Case of the Ancient Messene Archaeological Site in Greece. Hydrology 2022, 9, 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9020019

AMA Style

Mentzafou A, Dimitriou E. Hydrological Modeling for Flood Adaptation under Climate Change: The Case of the Ancient Messene Archaeological Site in Greece. Hydrology. 2022; 9(2):19. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9020019

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mentzafou, Angeliki, and Elias Dimitriou. 2022. "Hydrological Modeling for Flood Adaptation under Climate Change: The Case of the Ancient Messene Archaeological Site in Greece" Hydrology 9, no. 2: 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9020019

APA Style

Mentzafou, A., & Dimitriou, E. (2022). Hydrological Modeling for Flood Adaptation under Climate Change: The Case of the Ancient Messene Archaeological Site in Greece. Hydrology, 9(2), 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9020019

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop