Teacher Professionalism in Omani Schools: Qualitative Insights from the ELT Context

Abstract

The present study sought to examine teachers’ perceptions of professionalism in the context of English language teaching (ELT) in Oman, using a model of professionalism as a guiding framework. Adopting a qualitative research design, data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 10 teachers working in Cycle 2 (grades 5–10) and Post-Basic (grades 11–12) schools situated in two governorates in Oman. Inductive thematic analysis was conducted to identify the themes emerging in relation to the study’s objective. The findings showed that teachers’ perceptions of professionalism extend across three domains: the individual, the interpersonal, and the institutional/societal domains. Additionally, three intertwined primary themes were identified: teacher holistic mastery as an educator, teacher agency for change, and teacher empowerment. Specifically, teacher holistic mastery entails teacher pedagogical competence and effective professional relationships; teacher agency for change entails the improvement of one’s self and others; and teacher empowerment entails societal and institutional empowerment. In light of these findings, this study provides implications for practitioners, policymakers, and researchers.

1. Introduction

Recent discussions on teacher quality have been increasingly associated with the concept of teacher professionalism (Demirkasımoğlu, 2010; Dodillet et al., 2019). Teacher professionalism is also considered one of the key elements of teacher effectiveness (Demirkasımoğlu, 2010). The concept of teacher professionalism is not new in educational research, having been widely addressed for the last 50 years (Özdemir et al., 2019). Boyt et al. (2001) interpret professionalism as a multidimensional concept that includes a set of behaviors and attitudes that help practitioners attain the highest standards and improve the quality of service. Considering recent changes in the educational context, Baggini (2005) states that a professional can “achieve a number of ‘balances’ in the face of changes to authority; personal and community identity; cultural diversity; the generation gap; fulfilling a role; and being accountable to targets set beyond the school” (p. 5). However, despite the extensive theoretical discourse on teacher professionalism, there is a clear paucity of empirical research, especially qualitative research, that addresses teachers’ perceptions of professionalism.

This lack of research is specifically critical in the Omani context, where the government is pursuing Oman Vision 2040, which is geared toward bringing substantial improvements in all aspects of education. Similar to other contexts, teachers are placed at the heart of the educational reform. Thus, it is unsurprising that improving teacher quality has been a major aspect of the reform (Al Shabibi & Silvennoinen, 2018; Al-Kiyumi & Hammad, 2019). Notably, the government has exerted considerable efforts to develop and modernize teacher preparation programs (Al-Harthi et al., 2022), update in-service professional development, and establish an accountability policy to assess teachers’ performance (Al Hashmi & Klassen, 2020; Al Shabibi & Silvennoinen, 2018). Notwithstanding these tremendous efforts, scarce research has directly explored Omani teachers’ perceptions of professionalism.

It is significant to highlight the substantial local research that has repeatedly reported on Omani teachers’ dissatisfaction with various aspects of the profession, such as their roles and rights, work environment, and pre- and in-service training (Al’Abri et al., 2022; Al Balushi, 2021; Chapman et al., 2012), in addition to growing concerns regarding teaching quality (Hammad et al., 2024) and teachers’ engagement in leadership activities (Hammad et al., 2025). A limited understanding of how Omani school teachers perceive and experience professionalism may result in a misalignment between reform initiatives and teachers’ actual needs and professional identities. Such misalignment can contribute to reduced teacher engagement and motivation, which may, in turn, affect the effective implementation of Oman Vision 2040. Therefore, the current study aims to bridge this research gap by investigating Omani ELT teachers’ perceptions of professionalism. Specifically, this study aims to answer the following research question: What are Omani ELT teachers’ perceptions of teacher professionalism? This study is guided by Hodges et al.’s (2011) model of professionalism, which conceptualizes professionalism as extending across individual, interpersonal, and institutional/societal domains. This model offers a comprehensive lens through which teachers’ perceptions of professionalism can be explored.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Theoretical Framework of Teacher Professionalism

Numerous scholars have addressed the concept of teacher professionalism from theoretical perspectives and explored how teacher professionalism is formed. This study adopts the professionalism model of Hodges et al. (2011), which perceives professionalism as stretching along a continuum from the individual through the interpersonal to the societal/institutional domain. The individual domain focuses on the personal characteristics and attributes of the individual, whether inherent or developmental, and involves prioritizing teachers’ personal characteristics, behaviors, and cognitive processes. In the interpersonal domain, professionalism is understood to be constructed through interpersonal interactions. It focuses on interpersonal relationships (particularly student-teacher relationships), as well as teachers’ thoughts, decisions, and responses to interact with different situations. The broadest domain is the societal/institutional domain in which professionalism is understood to emerge and be modified through interaction with society. It focuses on the extent to which teachers meet the expectations, goals, and aspirations placed upon them by society and the institutions they work in.

Figure 1 illustrates the three domains of Hodges et al.’s (2011) model of professionalism. The strengths of Hodges et al.’s (2011) model lie in its comprehensiveness and inclusivity, as it gives balanced attention to all dimensions and to both the internal and external factors shaping professionalism. Most importantly, as illustrated in Figure 1, research emphasizes that these domains are not fixed or discrete; instead, they overlap and should be considered to represent continua.

More recent research has emphasized the evolving and context-responsive nature of teacher professionalism, particularly in light of post-pandemic educational changes that intensified the need for digital competence, adaptability, and innovation (Gökdaş et al., 2024. These developments do not replace earlier conceptualizations, but they further underscore the importance of a comprehensive framework that captures the personal, interpersonal, and institutional dimensions of professionalism. In this regard, Hodges et al.’s (2011) model continues to offer a thorough and dynamic lens for exploring teacher professionalism in the contemporary educational context. Further explanations of what each domain of the model entails are provided in Section 3.

2.2. Related Studies

Teacher professionalism has been explored empirically across various contexts. Salehizadeh et al. (2020) conducted a quantitative study in which they aimed to examine Iranian English teachers’ perceptions of professionalism in terms of competence and performance. The authors developed a 40-item questionnaire that addressed three categories: competence, performance, and techno-pedagogical competence. The competence category focuses on the types of knowledge; the performance category addresses community membership, theorizing from practice, learner-centeredness, and teacher training; techno-pedagogical competence deals with teachers’ technological skills. The findings of the study indicated that all participants agreed on performance and competence as the two main and closely related components of professionalism. Additionally, most participants perceived techno-pedagogical competence to be the most important component of teacher professionalism.

Using a qualitative approach, Tichenor and Tichenor (2005) examined in-service teachers’ views of professionalism at four American elementary schools. In particular, the researchers conducted focus group interviews to investigate what teachers believed were the basic qualities of professional teachers. The study revealed that the teachers viewed professionalism as encompassing teachers’ behaviors and attitudes. Furthermore, teachers’ beliefs of professionalism were grouped into five categories: character, commitment to change and continuous improvement, subject knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and obligations, and working relationships beyond the classroom.

In Oman, Bani Oraba (2020) studied ELT teacher professionalism at three Colleges of Technology (CoTs) in Oman, examining teachers’ understanding of professionalism and the threats to their sense of professionalism in light of some reform plans. The researcher conducted semi-structured interviews with 30 experienced teachers. The findings indicated that teachers believed that professionalism encompasses both the way teachers act and how they are perceived and treated by society and their administration. The study further showed that teachers felt their sense of professionalism was being compromised by certain policies and directives, which subsequently had a negative effect on their professional identity, motivation, and performance. It was also found that those institutional conditions hindered teachers from practicing their interpretation of professionalism. The study highlighted the importance of considering teachers’ perceptions and sense of professionalism when developing reform policies.

Similarly, Al-Bakri and Troudi (2020) investigated EFL teachers’ understanding of professionalism in a public college in Oman using a focus group interview. The study identified three major dimensions of professionalism: qualification and professional development, accountability, and attitude and behavior. The teachers believed that obtaining the relevant qualification is not a sufficient indicator of professionalism since it is inseparable from teacher behavior and attitude, emphasizing the need to continue learning and developing themselves professionally. They also stressed teachers’ relationships with others and their responsibility toward students’ learning. However, it was found that the teachers perceived professional behaviors and attitudes as context sensitive.

To conclude, previous studies have examined teachers’ perceptions of professionalism across diverse settings and dimensions. Although such studies provide valuable insights into teacher professionalism, they often adopt a limited perspective of the concept. Conceptually, many of these studies narrow professionalism to discrete elements, such as competency, accountability and attitudes, rather than situating it within a holistic framework that reflects its multifaceted nature. Moreover, little research has been conducted to investigate teacher professionalism in Oman, with existing studies focusing exclusively on the tertiary level. Research that explores Omani ELT teacher professionalism at the school level remains scarce. Thereupon, the present study seeks to address these research gaps by investigating Omani ELT teachers’ perceptions of professionalism at the school level.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Design

This study adopts qualitative research design. Hammarberg et al. (2016) maintain that qualitative research is a more appropriate choice when seeking to answer questions related to perspectives, experiences, and meaning, most often from the participants’ perspective. Hence, the qualitative research design is believed to enable the researchers to comprehensively and thoroughly understand Omani ELT teachers’ perceptions of professionalism.

3.2. Population and Sample

The population of the study consisted of ELT teachers in Omani public schools. The study adopted criterion-based purposive sampling, as it enables the selection of individuals who can provide deep and relevant insights needed to answer the research questions (Patton, 2002). Participants were selected based on predefined criteria including years of teaching experience, educational background, and school level. The sample included 10 female and male ELT teachers. This number was considered sufficient to fully understand the essence of the teachers’ experience and to reach data saturation. The sample included both novice and experienced teachers as one form of data triangulation. For this study, novice teachers are defined as those having 1–5 years of teaching experience, while experienced teachers are those with more than 5 years of experience. This categorization is widely used in educational research (Florida & Mbato, 2020; Michel, 2013). The sample targeted only Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) graduates with a bachelor’s degree in education. The College of Education (CoE) at SQU is positioned as the leading teacher education institution in Oman, and thus teachers who graduate from SQU are believed to have received reputable and standardized training. This offers a more controlled context for examining teacher professionalism by minimizing variability in training quality. However, restricting the sample to SQU graduates may limit the generalizability of the findings as ELT teachers in Oman may graduate from other educational institutions, or enter the profession through alternative certification pathways. The sample was also restricted to teachers from cycle two (Grade 5–10) and post-basic (Grade 11–12) levels. Teachers at these stages generally share similar teaching experiences, challenges, and professional expectations, which differ from those of teachers in Cycle 1 who work with younger children. Hence, adopting a limited sample in terms of the educational context maintains the study’s scope and feasibility. Importantly, all teachers were included based on their willingness to meet face-to-face with the researchers and speak openly about their experiences.

Table 1. Detailed Profile of the Participants.

Participant Code	Gender	Position a	Governorate	City	Teaching Experience (Year)	Grade Level (Now)
1	F	T	Ad Dakhiliyah	Bahla	3	10
2	M	T	Ad Dakhiliyah	Nizwa	1	5
3	F	T	Ad Dakhiliyah	Samail	3	8 & 12
4	F	T	Muscat	Al Amarat	3	10
5	M	T	Muscat	Al Seeb	5	10
6	F	T	Ad Dakhiliyah	Nizwa	7	12
7	M	ST	Ad Dakhiliyah	Nizwa	17	10
8	F	ST	Ad Dakhiliyah	Al Hamra	16	7
9	F	ST	Muscat	Al Qurm	21	12
10	M	ST	Muscat	Al Seeb	24	5

^a T = Teacher; ST = Senior Teacher.

provides a detailed description of the participants.

3.3. Research Instrumentation

This study adopted individual, face-to-face, semi-structured interviews for data collection. Semi-structured interviewing focuses on predetermined topic areas that the researcher aims to explore but approaches them in a conversational style based on the conversation direction. The interview protocol, designed by the researchers, consisted of three sections. The first section focused on demographic information and served as an ice-breaker, asking participants to describe their backgrounds, teaching experiences, and professional roles. The second section was structured to address the research question and was informed by the professionalism model proposed by Hodges et al. (2011), which depicts professionalism as stretching along a continuum of three domains: the individual, the interpersonal, and the societal/institutional domains. Accordingly, this section of the interview consisted of three subsections, each addressing one of the three domains. Hodges et al.’s model does not only suggest the three general domains but also identifies the areas that each domain entails. Similarly, when constructing the interview questions, the researchers ensured that all of these areas were covered within each domain. The third section asked teachers about their professional aspirations, including what they hoped to achieve, improve, or change. This was intended to provide deeper insights into their priorities and further explore their perceptions of professionalism. The interview protocol was validated by 9 people, and modifications were made based on their comments. The interview protocol is provided in Appendix A.

3.4. Data Collection

Overall, 10 individual interviews were conducted: 5 with novice teachers and 5 with experienced teachers. Interview duration ranged between 1 hour and 2.5 hours based on the special settings of each interview. All interviews were conducted in person at different locations based on each participant’s preferences. The participants were given the choice to use either English or Arabic. All but one chose to respond entirely in English, with minimal use of Arabic. One participant, however, preferred to use Arabic for most questions. All interviews were audio-recorded using a mobile phone voice recorder, and all participants gave their consent to being recorded. The interviews were transcribed using Transcriptor, a web-based AI transcription tool (Transcriptor, n.d.). Input that was not recognized by the program was transcribed manually by the researchers. Transcripts with Arabic data were translated by the researchers and double-checked by a translator.

3.5. Data Analysis

This study followed the inductive thematic analysis (ITA) processes to analyze and draw conclusions from the obtained data. This study adopted the six-phase model for thematic analysis proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006). The researchers began by immersing themselves in the data through repeated readings and generated as many initial codes as possible. When all interviews were coded, the researchers collated similar codes to form broader themes. In this phase, different visual representations (tables and mind maps) were created to gain a better understanding of the relationships between codes, overarching themes, and subthemes. The initial themes were reviewed multiple times at different intervals to check for internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity, through iterative comparison between coded extracts and the entire dataset to ensure coherence and conceptual clarity. Although the initial coding was conducted by a single researcher, emerging codes and thematic interpretations were discussed with members of the research team to refine categorisations and enhance analytical rigour. An audit trail was maintained throughout the analytic process. In addition, member checking was conducted, whereby participants reviewed and confirmed the accuracy and resonance of the interpretations. The themes were later defined and named in a manner that plainly describes the essence of the theme. The last phase involved producing a report that presents a concise, coherent, and persuasive story from the data to answer the research question.

3.6. Ethical Considerations

Several ethical issues were considered throughout the stages of this study. First, the researchers applied for clearance from the Ministry of Education to approach the selected participants. Thereafter, the researchers contacted all participants in person and obtained their verbal and written consent. The participants were informed of the research topic/purpose, and the interview procedures, including their right to withdraw from the study at any time. Furthermore, they were assured that their answers were confidential and that any information or quotes taken from their responses would not identify them as the respondents. Finally, a copy of the interview data analysis was sent to the relevant participants to verify the accuracy of the interpretations.

4. Results

This section presents the results of the study, focusing mainly on the most significant emerging themes. The participants are coded with #NT, #ExT, and #ST, which stand for novice teacher, experienced teacher, and senior teacher, respectively, followed by the participant number.

Overall, the participant teachers linked teacher professionalism to teacher identity both within and beyond the classroom, manifested through teacher skills, interactions, and influence. Generally, the teachers perceived teacher professionalism as extending through three domains: the individual, interpersonal, and institutional/societal domains, which aligns with the professionalism model proposed by Hodges et al. (2011). Three key themes were identified: (1) teacher holistic mastery as an educator; (2) teacher agency for change; and (3) teacher empowerment. As Figure 2 depicts, these three themes are intertwined and can influence each other in the sense that the fulfillment of one theme requires the fulfillment of the others.

4.1. Theme 1: Teacher Holistic Mastery as an Educator

The data analysis revealed that the foundational understanding of teacher professionalism among teachers relates to teacher mastery and excellence as an educator. This mastery is demonstrated primarily through teachers’ pedagogical competence, as reflected in their pedagogical knowledge and skills, as well as their ability to build professional relationships with all stakeholders.

4.1.1. Teacher Pedagogical Competence

All participants emphasized that professional teachers should obtain the necessary knowledge and skills that enable them to do their work effectively within the classroom. Hodges et al.’s (2011) model of professionalism identifies teacher knowledge and skills as an indispensable area of the individual domain. In this study, teacher pedagogical competence was generally identified by two main aspects: subject-matter expertise and effective classroom teaching.

• Subject-Matter Expertise

Most teachers stressed that professionalism requires having subject-matter knowledge. They believed that a professional ELT teacher should have a good level of language proficiency, which relates to the overall ability to use English effectively and appropriately across different language skills, encompassing fluency, accuracy, and accent. Several teachers commented that students judge teachers’ competence based on their language proficiency, highlighting the responsibility for teachers to continually learn and improve their language abilities. However, the teachers maintained that language proficiency is “a very important part, but it’s not everything” (#ST 9).

Additionally, the teachers believed that linguistic knowledge, specifically the theoretical aspects of phonetics, phonology, morphology, grammar, and vocabulary, enables teachers to explain why the language is the way it is, and helps them identify students’ language needs. Some teachers stated that their inability to answer students’ questions about the language made them feel unprofessional. For instance, #NT 1 said, “When I can’t answer a question from a student… that makes me feel as if I’m not professional enough.”

Unlike experienced teachers, knowledge of educational theories and educational psychology was a particularly significant issue for novice teachers.

• Effective Teaching

Most teachers directly linked teacher professionalism to a teacher’s ability to deliver high-quality lessons, achieve the intended learning outcomes, and actively engage students in the learning process. The most significant skills stressed by most teachers were technological skills and curriculum adaptation, with technological skills highlighted as most important by both novice and experienced teachers. For example, #NT 2 stated, “Being able to use technology and sometimes even AI is a very important skill that is really needed in this period of time.” The teachers maintained that technological skills are essential to enrich the lesson and deliver the content in an engaging manner. #ST 10 elaborated, “You can’t detach learning and teaching from modern technologies. You have to engage the students… you have to make learning easy for them and teaching much easier for you with these technologies.”

Additionally, most teachers contended that pedagogically competent teachers should be able to adapt the curriculum in a way that they believe is better for their students. Notably, curriculum adaptation skills were more often discussed by experienced than novice teachers. #ExT 6 said, “The curriculum is crammed with irrelevant things, and if you do them, you will never finish teaching the textbook.” Furthermore, #ST 8 clarified, “We should be selective in some points. Sometimes, we find activities that will not fit with our students, so we modify and edit them. Actually, I feel free. I do what I see is good for my students.”

4.1.2. Teacher Professional Relationships

The second aspect of teachers’ holistic mastery concerns their professional relationships. All participants emphasized that professional teachers must be strong communicators. According to Hodges et al. (2011), interpersonal professionalism is demonstrated through teachers’ social interactions with students, colleagues, and the principal. The participants viewed professionalism in this domain as the ability to build effective, balanced relationships with others. Notably, their discussions centred primarily on relationships with students and colleagues. Participants believed that professional teachers should maintain friendly and close relationships with their students while setting clear boundaries. #NT 4 described her relationship with her students: “I’m trying to be friendly with you, but you should respect me. We should have mutual respect. Being fun and friendly can coexist with being respectful.”

Additionally, the participants perceived that a professional teacher should maintain relationships with other teachers grounded in mutual respect and appreciation. They explained that teachers should respect their colleagues’ boundaries, initiatives, and efforts, and should support each other without envy or judgment. Novice teachers indicated that they respected the seniority of their colleagues and valued their feedback and support. Furthermore, all senior teachers maintained that they did not consider themselves in a superior position to their colleagues. For instance, #ST 9 perceived herself as a “coordinator between the administration and the teachers.” This shows that the teachers maintained an egalitarian approach in their relationship with their colleagues, where there was no sense of superiority, but rather every teacher was respected and valued.

4.2. Theme 2: Teacher Agency for Change: Within and Beyond the School

This theme revolves around the proactive roles that teachers play in instigating positive change as educators. When asked what they aspired to achieve in the profession, #NT 5 stated, “I just want to feel like I’ve contributed to developing something in the educational system… I’ve achieved something… I’ve made a change.” According to research participants, being a change agent involves two complementary processes: the improvement of one’s self and the improvement of others. The improvement of one’s self paves the way for the improvement of others, including the students, the school community, and society in general.

4.2.1. The Improvement of Self

All participants perceived life-long learning as a main attribute of professional teachers. They maintained that they should continue learning and updating themselves with the necessary knowledge and skills. #ST 10 asserted that life-long learning is an indispensable facet of professionalism. He eloquently explained:

By the time you think you have reached full professionalism, it means you have definitely stopped learning. So if you are to develop your professionalism, don’t think of it as an end point in the future. You keep learning. Maybe you retire and still you don’t think of yourself as a professional. It is not because you haven’t learned anything, but because there is always something more to learn.

The data analysis revealed that the mindset of life-long learning promotes three identities perceived by the participants as necessary for attaining professionalism. These include the teacher as a professional development (PD) advocate, the teacher as a reflective practitioner, and the teacher as a researcher.

• Teacher as PD Advocate

The teachers were committed to engaging in PD initiatives. For example, #NT 1 clearly stated, “I always have a plan at the beginning of each year to attend these courses and programs, and even in the summer holiday.” The main form of PD discussed by all teachers was the informal workshops that they organized with their colleagues inside the school. #NT 4 stated, “These workshops are very important—especially if the teachers agreed that we should have a workshop to improve a certain area or skill. We acquire a lot from these workshops.”

• Teacher as Reflective Practitioner

The teachers clearly highlighted the importance of practicing reflection to maintain professional growth. #NT 3 stated the following:

I can say that this is one of the attitudes that a teacher should have: that you have constant feedback either from yourself, from other teachers, from supervisors, or even the headmistress. So feedback is the key to developing your career.

The main form that emerged among both novice and experienced teachers was reflection with colleagues. For instance, #NT 2 explained that he sometimes invited other experienced teachers to attend some of his lessons and provide feedback on his performance. It also appeared that senior teachers fostered a culture of reflection among their teachers. For instance, #ST 9 clarified:

As a senior teacher, the post-lesson discussion for me is not only, ‘I like this and I don’t like that.’ It’s more than that. You need to know how and why the teacher did this in her lesson, how she overcame the problem in that lesson, and so on.

• Teacher as Researcher

The teachers believed professional teachers should demonstrate the identity of a teacher as a researcher. They demonstrated this identity either by reading existing research or by conducting their own research. For example, #NT 5 stated that he and his colleagues agreed to discuss educational research papers from different areas of interest during the teachers’ meetings. Similarly, when she was asked about one area that she wanted to focus on as a professional teacher, #ExT 6 clarified that she wanted to do research. She further explained:

It gives me deep insights into the education system and teaching … I feel like doing research or even reading research refreshes the mind. So, I don’t want my mind to freeze. I want to refresh it.

4.2.2. Improvement of Others

The second aspect of being a change agent involves professional teachers extending their positive impact to others. This aligns with Hodges et al.’s (2011) model that emphasizes social purpose and responsibility as key dimensions of societal/institutional professionalism. The participants believed that this impact can be achieved through improving students’ comprehensive growth, which in turn leads to improving society.

• Impact on Students and Society

All participants maintained that professional teachers should have a positive influence on society, mainly, through improving students. The teachers agreed that they should work on students’ comprehensive growth beyond academic learning. For instance, #NT 5 expressed that he wanted to be “an influencer, not a knowledge feeder”. Similarly, #NT 3 explained that she considered her students as her “projects.” The main impact that the teachers aimed to achieve was to instill values and morals in their students, thereby guiding them to become good citizens. This was articulated by #ST 7:

Part of my job is to focus on these things because we want our generation to be good. It’s not just learning; it’s also to have values. If they do not have values, I believe that those students will never learn.

Additionally, the teachers agreed that a professional teacher is someone who takes a proactive approach to improving the school environment. According to Hodges et al. (2011), interpersonal professionalism is enacted through teachers’ problem-solving skills and how they respond to different situations they encounter in their professional practice. The participants emphasized that teachers should take the initiative to come up with creative solutions to support students’ learning. In fact, the participants of this study implemented many projects aimed at improving students’ language skills and the school environment in general. Examples of these projects were setting up a language center at school (#NT 4), organizing language competitions for the school’s students (#ST 8), and submitting proposals for future improvements for the school principal (#NT 5).

Another change the teachers hoped to make was to shift society’s perceptions of the teaching profession. This desire stemmed from their belief that teachers do not receive the respect and appreciation they deserve. Similarly, Hodges et al. (2011) emphasize the extent to which teachers meet the societal expectations as central dimensions of societal/institutional professionalism. The participants identified two methods to improve society’s perceptions of teachers: taking an active role in social events and utilizing social media. Some teachers provided examples of the social initiatives they undertook, such as volunteering and participating in Omani Women Association events (#NT 1), being a member of the Nizwa Center of Introducing Islam (#NT 2) and joining public camping campaigns (#ST 10). They expounded that involvement in such initiatives helps dispel the conventional image ingrained in the minds of the public about teachers.

• Collaboration and School Improvement

The second way in which teachers can be change agents is through collaboration and school improvement, a key dimension of interpersonal professionalism as highlighted by Hodges et al. (2011). All participants identified collaboration as a significant attribute of a professional teacher. They mainly highlighted collaboration between teachers and parents. #NT 2 commented as follows:

This institution of teaching is like a table made out of three legs. One is the teacher, one is the student, and one important leg is the parent. This is a very important foundation to build a responsible environment for the students.

The teachers demonstrated collaboration with colleagues through involvement in shared initiatives to improve their teaching practices, such as team teaching and peer observation, and through working on projects that benefit the school community in general. They also collaborated with parents to support and monitor students’ learning both at school and at home, and encouraged parents to actively involve in school activities.

4.3. Theme 3: Teacher Empowerment

The data analysis showed that the participant teachers strongly associated teacher professionalism with teacher empowerment. In other words, they perceived a professional teacher as being empowered at both the societal and institutional levels.

4.3.1. Societal Empowerment

The main form of societal empowerment highlighted by the participants is a greater appreciation of teachers by the wider society. They emphasized that people should be aware that teachers’ responsibilities and roles extend beyond teaching inside the classroom. #ST 8 stated, “We should be respected… Teachers put in lots of effort inside the school, and maybe not everybody can see this, but the work that teachers do inside the school is very valuable”. They also stressed that society should understand that teachers’ shortcomings are as normal as those in any other profession and, therefore, should refrain from magnifying their mistakes. In this regard, #NT 5 questioned, “Am I their enemy or something? Just don’t be so harsh. We’re just human. Just stop digging. Stop trying to find our mistakes.”

Therefore, it was unsurprising that teachers associated being a change agent with changing society’s perceptions of teachers. Hodges et al. (2011) conceptualize societal/institutional professionalism as the societal and institutional status accorded to teachers. Interestingly, many teachers suggested that society will not respect and appreciate teachers unless the ministry appreciates and respects them. For example, #NT 3 stated, “I feel like our ministry doesn’t appreciate us. So how would others appreciate us?” This suggests that the teachers do not position empowerment as a component of professionalism, but as a prerequisite for it. Hence, one of the most emergent aspects of teachers’ perceptions of teacher professionalism was being institutionally empowered within both the school and ministry contexts.

4.3.2. Institutional Empowerment

It appeared that the participants perceived a professional teacher as someone who receives institutional support at both the micro level (within the school context) and the macro level (through the MoE regulations and treatment). For them, institutional empowerment includes different forms of moral and material support.

• Voice in Decision-Making

Being heard emerged as one of the needs frequently expressed across all interviews. The participants stressed that the administration, both at the school and ministry levels, should consider teachers’ needs, problems, and opinions when making decisions. #ST 8 illustrated, “As a teacher, you have to be noticed. They should listen to us and try to find solutions with us.” #NT 4 added, “You have to listen to the people who are doing it in real life, take their feedback on it, study the feedback, and maybe refine the regulations.” Notably, the teachers were primarily concerned with being involved in decisions that directly affect them or their students, mainly decisions related to curriculum and assessment. In general, despite the teachers’ emphasis on their right to be involved in decision-making, they clarified that they do not expect all their opinions to be considered. For example, #ST10 commented, “I want my ideas to be heard and assessed, and to be valued and discussed—not necessarily to be followed…They make me feel that they appreciate it, but they don’t agree. We don’t cross the answers without giving feedback.”

• Teacher Autonomy

The teachers expressed their dissatisfaction with their perceived limited autonomy. #ST 10, who had 24 years of experience, commented, “I was taught not to be autonomous…I was supposed to follow a path that was fixed, and my direction was fixed. They have chosen everything for me … So how do you expect me to be autonomous?” Consequently, teacher autonomy emerged as a main aspect of teacher professionalism, as perceived by all the teachers. Hodges et al. (2011) highlight teacher autonomy as a key component of societal/institutional professionalism. In this study, all teachers linked autonomy to making decisions about curriculum and assessment, areas they perceived to be problematic as for failure to address students’ needs. In other words, the teachers did not demand autonomy for their own interests, but for the interest of their students. It is important to note that the teachers did not demand full autonomy since they showed a clear understanding that there should be guidelines for them to follow. For instance, #ST 9, who had been a teacher for 21 years and a senior teacher for 2 years, explained, “For me, as a teacher, I need to follow certain criteria. So there should be freedom, but within a certain frame.”

• PD Opportunities

One way in which the teachers wanted to be empowered was by being provided with high-quality PD opportunities that address their actual needs. One point that was widely discussed especially by experienced teachers concerned the practicality of these programs. They explained that it is not sufficient to introduce teachers to new strategies; PD programs must consider the challenges teachers face in their classrooms. Therefore, they should provide teachers with guidance on how to effectively implement these strategies in practice. Reflecting on her experience during the training for novice teachers program in the Specialized Institute, #ExT 7 commented:

And at that time, I remember that I would be sitting in the chair, the instructors talking, and the only idea that I had in mind was ‘You don’t get us, you don’t understand us.” You’re saying something completely different from what we need.

• Financial Support

Financial support was a prominent facet of teacher professionalism as perceived by the teachers. Receiving a higher salary was the main form of financial support emphasized by most of the teachers, particularly the novice teachers. For example, #NT 2 disclosed that he felt “oppressed, used, and not appreciated” because he got paid much less than his colleagues who were recruited a few years before. #ST 7 also conveyed the constant complaints he received from his team regarding the low pay and explained how it affected their morale. Additionally, some of the teachers linked teachers’ salaries to their social status. #ST 9 alluded that teachers’ low salaries might be one of the reasons why society did not appreciate them and the teaching profession in general. Other forms of financial support that the teachers demanded include promotions and incentives. The teachers stressed that there should be a clear and fair system for promoting teachers, as in any other job. #NT 1 clarified:

These promotions are important for us. Because we don’t have promotions, many teachers don’t care about improving themselves or their teaching because they know they will need to do some extra work, but they will not be rewarded for it.

5. Discussion

According to the data analysis, the teachers perceived professionalism as extending across the three domains of Hodges et al.’s (2011) model—the individual, interpersonal, and institutional/societal. The data also revealed that they had developed three overarching understandings of teacher professionalism: teacher holistic mastery as an educator, teacher agency for change, and teacher empowerment.

5.1. Teacher Holistic Mastery as an Educator

The theme of holistic mastery as an educator emerged from the data as representing the teachers’ foundational understanding of professionalism. This mastery is demonstrated through both teacher pedagogical competence, which entails teacher knowledge and teaching skills, and teacher professional relationships.

5.1.1. Pedagogical Competence

The teachers stressed that language proficiency alone is not a sufficient determinant of professionalism, suggesting the importance of broader elements such as personality, teaching experience, relationships, and life-long learning. This progressive view of professionalism may be influenced by recent reforms to teacher professional development and teacher evaluation systems, which extend beyond teacher knowledge to emphasize the standards of professional attitudes and values, curriculum, assessment literacy, and professional growth (Al Jabri et al., 2018; General Directorate of Educational Supervision, 2024).

Linguistic knowledge emerged as another significant aspect of teacher professionalism. The teachers emphasized linguistic competence, linking it to their ability to answer students’ questions and ultimately gain their students’ trust. Kurnianingsih et al. (2012) maintain that students’ trust in teachers is affected by the extent to which they perceive their teachers as knowledgeable and competent in delivering their knowledge.

The teachers also perceived knowledge of educational theories and psychology as a key facet of professionalism. Notably, this subtheme emerged mainly among novice teachers, while experienced teachers seldom referred to these areas. This finding could be interpreted that with their accumulated experience, experienced teachers tend to develop their personalized approaches, and show what Berliner (1994) refers to as “a fluid performance” without the need to explicitly base their practices on standardized educational theories and psychology.

The second dimension of teacher pedagogical competence is effective teaching. The teachers believed that professionalism entails the ability to deliver good lessons, engage students in learning, and achieve the intended learning outcomes. Several studies indicate that teachers perceive effective teaching as a core characteristic of professional teachers (Korkmazgil & Seferoğlu, 2021; Okas et al., 2014; Swann et al., 2010). Particularly, the teachers considered technological and curriculum adaptation skills to be the most important teaching skills for professional teachers. This implies the mindset of a transformative professional, who is distinguished by risk-taking, openness to change, and ongoing growth and courage (Mockler, 2005). This mindset may have been particularly promoted during the COVID-19 pandemic when the MoE transitioned to online learning and blended learning modes, urging teachers to utilize a variety of technological resources to meet their pedagogical responsibilities. Additionally, curriculum adaptation skills are well-situated within the context of the extensive criticisms the Omani ELT curriculum has received for failing to address students’ needs (Al Shabibi & Silvennoinen, 2018). Notably, it was mainly the experienced teachers who discussed curriculum adaptation skills. The lack of such discussions among novice teachers can be interpreted in light of Berliner’s (1994) model of teacher developmental stages, which contends that novice teachers tend to conform to the prescribed rules and regulations unlike expert teachers who can critically analyze and reflect on different situations.

5.1.2. Professional Relationships

The second aspect of teacher holistic mastery is maintaining professional and effective relationships with other stakeholders, based on trust, mutual respect, and open communication, which are the core values of activist professionals (Sachs, 2001, 2016). Capen (2017) found that teachers considered respecting and supporting others as the minimum necessary for professionalism. Similarly, in Shin’s (2012) study on pre-service teachers’ perceptions of professionalism, the participants emphasized the importance of establishing strong and supportive relationships with others and viewed respect as a precursor to classroom management and effective teaching. These findings underscore the significance of fostering teachers’ interpersonal skills.

5.2. Teacher Agency for Change: Within and Beyond the School

Teacher agency for change was another significant theme in teachers’ perceptions of professionalism, implying that teachers should play a proactive role in facilitating positive change as educators. Two complementary processes are involved in this theme: self-improvement and the improvement of others.

5.2.1. Self-Development

The teachers identified three roles that contribute to self-improvement: teacher as a PD advocate, teacher as a reflective practitioner, and teacher as a researcher. Firstly, the participants believed that a professional teacher is one who is actively involved in PD. The primary form of PD discussed was the informal workshops the teachers arranged with their colleagues at the school. Such informal workshops held at schools imply a grassroots approach to PD whereby teachers take responsibility for designing training programs that cater to their specific needs.

Furthermore, reflecting with colleagues (through discussions and observation visits) emerged from the interviews as the main form of reflective practice professional teachers should exhibit. This aligns with democratic professionalism, which emphasizes the principles of collaboration and the co-construction of knowledge.

Additionally, the teachers viewed a professional teacher as one who is active in research either by reading about previous research or conducting their own. This corresponds with the extensive discussion on teacher research as a key pillar of transformative and activist professionalism (Moss, 2014).

5.2.2. Developing Others

The teachers believed that professional teachers can bring about improvements to others in two ways: through their impact on students and society by instilling positive morals and through collaboration and school improvement. Mockler (2005) contends that transformative teachers contribute to society by cultivating generations that think critically, act ethically, and embrace social justice.

Another impact the teachers wanted to have on society was to change the public perception of them. They believed that society does not give teachers the value and appreciation they deserve, reinforcing the findings of previous studies that highlight Omani teachers’ dissatisfaction with society’s perception of them and of the teaching profession in general (Al Jabri et al., 2018; Al Qalhati et al., 2020). The teachers’ concern about how society perceives them suggests a cognizance of the broader societal/institutional dimensions of professionalism; they were aware that their professionalism could not be separated from their status in society.

Other significant ways in which the teachers believed they could instigate positive change included collaboration and taking the initiative to improve the school learning environment. Several studies have indicated that teachers view professionalism as the ability to cooperate with and influence other teachers and improve the school (Capen, 2017; Swann et al., 2010).

5.3. Teacher Empowerment

The final theme was teacher empowerment, which was related to how they are treated and perceived by society and the ministry. In particular, the teachers perceived a professional teacher as someone who is respected and valued by society. This shows that the teachers believed that their professionalism is embedded within a broader context from which it cannot be separated.

The first form of institutional empowerment was having a voice in decision-making processes. This finding also resonates with Capen’s (2017) and Rizvi and Elliota’s (2005) findings. Those teachers demonstrated the core values of democratic professionals who reject unquestioning compliance with imperatives (Webb et al., 2004). Instead, they demand their right to negotiate their ideas and work to reach a common ground with each other.

Another form of institutional empowerment highlighted by the teachers was being given autonomy. Several studies show that teachers strongly associate teacher professionalism with autonomy (Dodillet et al., 2019; Swann et al., 2010). This perception is deep-rooted in discussions of democratic professionalism, which call for teacher autonomy and stress teacher professional judgment. However, the teachers believed that they still need to have a framework delineating what is expected from them, suggesting that they also adopt a managerial view of professionalism, in which teachers are expected to work efficiently and effectively to meet the standardized criteria set by the authorities (Sachs, 2001). Hence, it can be concluded that Omani teachers held a middle position between the competing discourses of managerial and democratic professionalism, from which they balance their professional independence and their contribution to organizational objectives.

The teachers also emphasized high-quality PD opportunities as a main form of institutional empowerment, perceiving high-quality PDPs as relevant and practical programs that are tailored to their specific needs. This perception reflects different democratic values, such as adopting a critical and reflective attitude with which to examine their own needs and taking charge of their own professional growth (Al-Khamisi et al., 2025).

The final form of institutional empowerment proposed by the teachers was financial support, which included receiving higher salaries, incentives, and promotions. Shon (2006) argues that one reason teaching as a profession has a low status is the lack of financial recognition teachers receive, underscoring how teacher professionalism is embedded in the broader context.

Notably, the findings indicated that the teachers positioned empowerment as a prerequisite for professionalism. This shows that professionalism is not merely an individual attribute but instead depends on institutional empowerment and social recognition.

5.4. Situating the Emergent Themes in Hodges et al.’s Model of Professionalism

The discussion of Omani ELT teachers’ perceptions of professionalism revealed three overarching themes: teacher holistic mastery as an educator, teacher agency for change, and teacher empowerment. The main contribution of this study is its enrichment of our understanding of teacher professionalism by expanding on Hodges et al.’s (2011) model, which conceives professionalism as extending across three domains: individual, interpersonal, and societal/institutional. By situating the emergent themes of this study within these domains, more depth and nuance are added to the model.

As Figure 3 illustrates, the relationship between this study’s emergent themes and Hodges et al.’s domains is not strictly bijective. Instead, the themes are intertwined and can be situated in different domains simultaneously. The theme of teacher holistic mastery is rooted in individual professionalism as it captures teacher knowledge and skills; however, it also aligns with interpersonal professionalism since it encompasses teacher professional relationships. Similarly, the theme of teacher agency for change fits within the three domains. It reflects individual professionalism in the sense that the improvement of self with its accompanying identities (teacher as a PD advocate, teacher as a reflective practitioner, and teacher as a researcher) ultimately influences teacher knowledge, skills, and attitudes. It reflects interpersonal professionalism as teachers bring about improvements to others through their interpersonal interactions, collaborations, and initiatives. It also reflects societal/institutional professionalism as it captures teachers’ sense of social purpose towards the students, the school, and the broader community. The theme of teacher empowerment supports both societal/institutional and individual professionalism, discussing the status of teachers at both societal and ministerial levels, and suggesting that truly empowering teachers (e.g., through PDPs, sufficient autonomy, and better resources) fosters their individual knowledge and skills.

This further extension of the model accentuates the multifaceted and dynamic nature of teacher professionalism. It also bridges the theoretical understanding of teacher professionalism with the specific realities of Omani ELT teachers. This interconnectedness also suggests that teacher professionalism may be better conceptualised as a dynamic and mutually reinforcing system rather than as three analytically distinct domains. In this sense, the findings not only enrich Hodges et al.’s (2011) model but also challenge a compartmentalised reading of it, highlighting how growth in one domain can catalyse development in others. This has important implications for policy and professional development, which should address these dimensions holistically rather than in isolation.

6. Conclusions, Limitations and Implications

This study investigated a complex phenomenon that has received attention in scholarly discussions while remaining persistently overlooked by local research: the phenomenon of ELT teacher professionalism. This study aimed to answer this research question: What are Omani ELT teachers’ perceptions of teacher professionalism? An inductive thematic analysis (ITA) of 10 semi-structured interviews with Omani school teachers revealed that they perceived professionalism as a complex construct entailing multiple facets pertaining to individual, interpersonal, and institutional/societal domains. The results indicate that Omani ELT teachers’ perceptions of professionalism are related to three overarching and intertwined themes: teacher holistic mastery as an educator, teacher agency for change, and teacher empowerment. Teacher holistic mastery as an educator is primarily exhibited through pedagogical competence, i.e., teacher pedagogical knowledge and skills, as well as the ability to build professional and effective relationships with all stakeholders. Teacher agency for change implies the ability to instigate positive change as an educator. This theme entails both the improvement of self and the improvement of others. Teacher empowerment relates to how teachers are treated and perceived by both society and the ministry. This study emphasizes the multifaceted nature of teacher professionalism and the interplay between contemporary dominant discourses of professionalism.

This study has implications for the teaching profession in Oman. Policies and reform initiatives, specifically those related to teacher preparation, teacher professional development, and teacher evaluation, should move beyond the narrow perspective of professionalism and embrace a more comprehensive and contemporary approach that captures the multifaceted nature of teacher professionalism. Teacher education providers should systematically embed holistic mastery, agency for change, and teacher empowerment across both initial teacher preparation and in-service professional development programs to ensure sustained professional growth. This requires greater emphasis on strong pedagogical content, collaborative professional learning, reflective practice, teacher-led inquiry, and professional autonomy. Moreover, The MoE should take deliberate steps not only to strengthen teachers’ contributions to society but also to improve societal perceptions of the teaching profession. Elevating teachers’ social status requires multiple initiatives, including raising public awareness of teachers’ impact, formally recognizing their achievements and contributions, and fostering a sustained culture of respect for teachers within the wider community.

Finally, this study has some limitations that should be taken into consideration when interpreting its findings and implications. The first limitation lies in restricting the sample to graduates of Sultan Qaboos University (SQU). While this decision was made to control for variability in teacher preparation and ensure greater coherence in participants’ training backgrounds, it limits the generalizability of the findings to the broader population of Omani teachers, particularly those who graduated from other institutions. Second, reliance on interviews as the sole data collection method restricts opportunities for data triangulation and may limit the depth of insights into teacher professionalism. Future research is therefore encouraged to incorporate additional data sources and employ mixed-method designs to gain a more comprehensive understanding of teacher professionalism within Oman’s education system.