Quality of Life of Children from Families Affected by Migration: The Role of Educational Policies

Abstract

The problems of children from Romanian transnational families represent a current issue and one of great interest in the field of public policies that need to be developed in Romania in order to offer solutions that will lead to an increase in the quality of life within these families. This article reflects, based on the results of a survey among parents/grandparents who care for children from transnational families and two focus groups with authorities/organizations with a role in managing the problems of transnational families, the main issues faced by children from these families within education. The results obtained indicate an increased need for intervention in the following areas: support to avoid school dropout; education regarding the negative effects of drug, alcohol and other toxic substance consumption; and supervision in the completion of school assignments. All these problems influence the educational course of children and consequently the quality of life of all family members. This article offers support to decision makers in the field of educational policies to effectively manage the real problems of these families, highlighting the vital role of substantiating public policies based on scientific studies.

1. Introduction

Successive economic crises occurring alongside the pandemic crisis (SARS-CoV-2 epidemic) have led to a deterioration in the quality of life and working conditions in many member states of the European Union (EU), with an unwanted contribution to the growing areas of inequality between countries and groups of people. Children are more vulnerable to deprivation or social exclusion than other categories of the population in most countries, and the evaluation of the effects on the families in which these children grow up is a necessary condition for the foundation of social policies in the field. Family policies are an important pillar of national public policies and the most significant vehicle for governments to influence the living standards of current and future generations, having particular importance in meeting the Sustainable Development Goals.

The analysis of existing public policy documents in Romania that also consider the quality of life of families with children in care (National Strategy on Social Inclusion and Poverty Reduction for the period 2022–2027, approved by Government Decision 440 of 2022, National Strategy for the Protection and Promotion of Rights of the child “Protected children, safe Romania” 2022–2027, project on the approval circuit, the National Strategy for the Sustainable Development of Romania 2030 approved by Government Decision No. 877/2018 and amended by Decision No. 754/2022) reveals an interest in ensuring a minimum standard of well-being in families with children in care, but there are still points of vulnerability that come mainly from the area of monitoring indicators, which are insufficiently developed to assess the quality of life of families with children.

Ensuring access to free quality education is a decisive factor that influences the quality of life of families with children in care. Data between 2013 and 2021 reveal a deficit in the allocation of resources in this area in Romania, with public expenditure on education rising to 3.2% of GDP in 2021, 1.6 percentage points below the EU27 average of 4.8% of GDP for the same year. Children who grow up in poverty or social exclusion find it difficult to adapt to the demands of the education system, to enjoy good health, and to reach their full potential later in life. They also face a greater risk of becoming unemployed, having low income, or being socially excluded as adults. Children whose parents have achieved a lower level of education are more exposed to the risks of material deprivation or social exclusion compared to children whose parents have achieved a higher level of education. Education influences the type of jobs a person can access, and the likelihood of poverty or social exclusion increases as educational level decreases. In Romania, in 2022, 80.7% of children living in the same household as their parents, whose highest level of education achieved was mostly lower secondary (ISCED 0-2), were at risk of deprivation or social exclusion.

The substantiation of public policies—aiming to reduce poverty among children—needs measurable data regarding the environment in which these children grow up (the family). Studies concerning the role of the family in the upbringing of children affected by extreme poverty reveal that the size of the family structure, which includes the socio-demographic characteristics of the parents, migration, and educational background, has frequently been associated with the nutritional status of children [1].

Studies on quality of life in families that have children in care have mostly focused on the area of families that have disabled children [2,3]. The quality of life (QoL) model proposed by Schalock and Verdugo in 2002 [4] is the most widely accepted QoL model by the international community in the field of disability. The model was originally developed for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities, but later it was adapted and used to assess QoL for other disadvantaged groups of people [5]. The model was also adapted for education, with Quality of Life Index for Inclusive Education (QoLI-IE) being a tool designed to monitor the extent to which educational cultures, policies, and practices meet the expectations and needs of children (3–17 years old) with intellectual and developmental disabilities in terms of access, participation, learning, and development [6]. The QoLI-IE is also a tool that can be used for monitoring in the framework of the European Child Guarantee [7]. This tool also supports action guidelines for policy makers, based on the evidence gathered from persons, schools, communities, and social systems [8].

There are also very few studies focused on quality of life in transnational families [9]. The studies completed on the impact of Romanians’ quality of life related to emigration [10,11] indicate a general increase in the living standard of those who went to work outside the country’s borders, reflected in financial situation, job satisfaction, access to quality medical and educational services, and diverse leisure opportunities. However, the quality of family life (QoLF) of those who remain in the country (children, parents) should be researched, taking into account all dimensions of QoLF (family interaction, emotional and physical well-being, and support related to the care of dependent family members).

The migration of parents abroad has profound emotional consequences for family members, especially children [12,13,14]. Quality of life related to children’s education in transnational families is influenced by the way in which educational policies are developed and implemented. The studies that evaluate the problems related to the education of children with parents who have left for work outside the borders of Romania are quite poorly developed. On this topic, the present article contributes empirical data to the foundation of some policies in the field.

The research question that guides the entire analysis of this article aims to identify some possible solutions in the field of educational policies to ameliorate the quality of life of transnational families with children left in the country of origin. The objectives of the research were as follows: (1) to explore the opinions of public and private providers of social services concerning the effectiveness of public measures and programs aiming to counteract and to alleviate the social exclusion of children left behind, and (2) to identify solutions to improve the quality of life of transnational families.

2. Methodological Approach

2.1. Data Source

The authors used empirical data from the project “Effects of migration experiences on families, children, and communities left behind: methods of assessment and strategies for mitigating the risk of social exclusion” (PN 19130203 financed by the Romanian Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digitalization under the Nucleu Program Inov Soc implemented by The National Scientific Research Institute for Labour and Social Protection—INCSMPS).

2.2. Methods and Target Groups

A mixed methodology was developed by the authors within the previously mentioned project, using a research methods/tools focus group guide and sociological investigation based on a face-to-face questionnaire.

The topics addressed in the focus group were as follows:

• The mission of public and private organizations active in the field of social assistance for families and children whose parents migrated for work;
• Migration of Romanian parents for work—size of the phenomenon and characteristics;
• The problems faced by families with children where one or both parents left to work abroad;
• Evaluation of public measures and programs aiming to counteract and to alleviate the social exclusion of children with parents left to work outside Romania’s borders.

The face-to-face questionnaire addressed the following topics:

• Traits of transnational families;
• Economic effects;
• Impact on school participation, child development, family cohesion, and solidarity;
• Possible solutions to improve the quality of life of transnational families.

The analysis carried out in this article only covers the information collected for the dimension “evaluation of measures and programs aimed at preventing and combating the social exclusion of children whose parents have gone to work outside Romania’s borders” within the focus groups and for the dimension “possible solutions to improve the quality of life of transnational families, with a focus on the people left in the country” within the questionnaire-based survey.

The research was carried out in Macro-region 2 of Romania, which includes the North-East and South-East development regions. These regions are among the most affected by the phenomenon of migration of parents for work. Fifteen representatives of public and private organizations active in the field of social assistance for transnational families with children left behind participated in the two focus groups organized, and 804 questionnaires were completed with parents/grandparents from families with children up to 17 years old and at least one migrant parent (

Table 1. Methods and target groups.

Methods	Target Group	No.
Focus group (FG)	Representatives of public and private organizations active in the field of social assistance for families and children whose parents migrated for work.	2 FGs 15 participants
Sociological investigation based on a face-to-face questionnaire	Parents/grandparents from families who have children up to 17 years old and a migrant parent (or both parents).	804

Source: INCSMPS database.

).

2.3. Sampling and Recruitment of the Participants

A non-probability sampling method/quota sampling was used for the recruitment of participants to focus groups. All participants expressed their agreement to participate in the research. The following steps were completed to recruit and to select participants for the qualitative research:

• Preparation of a list with the contact details of the social assistance public authorities at county-level territorial structures, NGOs that have interventions for the target group of the study, and educational institutions with projects dedicated to the target group of the project in the two development regions (North-East and South-East);
• In each region, a representative from each social assistance public authority at county level and NGOs in the area was requested;
• Along with the invitation to nominate a representative for the online focus group, the authorities identified for the focus groups received an official address from the Romanian Ministry of Labour and Social Solidarity regarding the objectives and the ways of using the results obtained from the group discussions.

The focus groups with representatives of the authorities/entities involved in the management of the problems of these families were carried out on 19 July 2021.

The same type of non-probabilistic random sampling/quota sampling was also used for the sociological investigation based on a face-to-face questionnaire. The reason why a non-probabilistic sampling method was used in the case of the survey derived from the lack of identification data regarding the basic population of parents/grandparents caring for children with migrant parents. First introduced in experimental research, the quota sampling method involves non-probability sampling with the strict application of proportions or controlled quotas [15,16] and uses the selection of a sample after the population has been divided into subgroups [17]. The survey was conducted between June and July 2022 and used a standardized face-to-face questionnaire applied using a TAPI (Tablet-Assisted Personal Interview) technique. Informed consent from all participants in the survey was obtained and, following the field research, data were analysed using statistical software (IMB SPSS Statistics 20).

3. Results

3.1. Quality of Life Related to Children’s Education in Families Affected by Migration

Children left behind in Romania by parents that decide to work abroad face many problems; therefore, quality of life related to the education of children undergoes a series of changes, most of the time in a negative sense. From the perspective of the authorities and institutions involved in managing the problems of families with children whose parents migrated for work, the difficulties encountered by these families are mainly emotional, as well as related to the ability to manage some events that appear in the life of the child left at home, either alone or in the care of other family members, in relation to school, the judicial system, the medical system, or different public authorities. In the case of children cared for by grandparents, communication problems arise due to the differences between generations. Intergenerational communication could become even more deficient during adolescence.

“This is a view of life… the grandfather is a grandfather, the young man, at 13–14 years old, already has major problems and does not find that type of support he needs.”

(Representative of entities involved in the issue of families with parents going to work abroad, North-East region, Romania)

Children with both parents working outside the country’s borders, or children from families where the sole breadwinner left, are at the greater risk. Also, if the parent who migrated for work is the mother, it is generally found that these families are more vulnerable and exposed to a decline in the quality of life of the children.

Participants in the focus group discussions emphasized the need for training parents to acquire parenting skills or to participate in parental counselling. From this point of view, an important role also belongs to workers in the field of social assistance, but also to educators and teachers.

“I tell you from practice… there are many parents who do not know the normal physical and emotional development milestones from that age. And we have to tell them what is a normal behaviour, where the limits are, where they should intervene. This psychoeducation is very important.”

(Representative of entities involved in the issue of families with parents going to work abroad, North-East region, Romania)

“… a school of parents, for those who are the supporters of parents who have gone abroad…”

(Representative of entities involved in the issue of families with parents going to work abroad, North-East region, Romania)

Children left in the country, either alone or in the care of a family member, often experience a sense of abandonment. Emotional problems are diverse and become more and more complex as children enter the adolescence stage. In some cases, behavioural problems are added to these emotional problems. Chain reactions result due to the lack of support, valorisation, and parental support. The main consequences of parents going to work abroad occur both in children and other family members who remain in the country, and the negative consequences are much deeper and longer lasting compared to the impact of the positive consequences (

Table 2. Consequences experienced by children with parents working abroad.

Negative Consequences	Positive Consequences
For children
Breakdown of relationship between parents and children. Difficulties in managing relationships within family. Acquiring negative behaviours in the absence of a parental model. Lack of support in daily life situations.	Acquisition of independent life skills. Improvement in living standards. Development and new opportunities for growth, especially for those children living in isolated settings. Opportunities to improve the relationship between parents and children when parents understand the consequences of migrating for work.
For family members
Difficulties in managing relationships with the children left in care.	Improvement in living standards.

Source: INCSMPS database.

).

The authorities/organizations involved in managing the problem of transnational families consider it important to develop programs in order to increase the support for families, but especially to help children whose parents are working abroad. For all participating entities in the focus group discussions, support for children and families was the main goal, given the context that there is a high degree of awareness of the complexity and diversity of issues that both families and children may face following the labour migration of parents outside the country’s borders.

“…there are many risks and it is natural that this issue of children with absent parents should be in our attention and to represent a priority for us.”

(Representative of entities involved in the issue of families with parents going to work abroad, North-East region, Romania)

The available support that the entities participating in the focus group discussions offer to children and families includes the following: social services within community integration centres; emergency intervention services; mobile intervention teams; psychological counselling intended for children whose parents are working abroad, but also for the parents who stayed at home and have children in their care; and advice, including legal advice, for stay-at-home parents to prevent or manage difficult situations that may arise in the situation that one of the parents left to work abroad.

“…but we are concerned also with the emotional, psychological part and what is happening with the mental health of the children and the family.”

(Representative of entities involved in the issue of families with parents going to work abroad, North-East region, Romania)

“…and we try to focus on the psychological aspects. It is very important to prevent trauma, or if it occurs, to try to mitigate it.”

(Representative of entities involved in the issue of families with parents going to work abroad, North-East region, Romania)

“My opinion is that parents’ information campaigns should also be intensified, I would see them much more aggressive. They should be more aggressive because they [parents left abroad] don’t understand the long-term consequences of parental separation…they don’t understand that emotional needs are more important than material needs.”

(Representative of entities involved in the issue of families with parents going to work abroad, South-East region, Romania)

The efficiency of these support measures depends on the existence of a local record of children left at home, and of families whose members intend to migrate for work. The second element of effectiveness for such measures is the existence of early-intervention services to support families and children whose parents intend or are already going to work abroad and who have been identified at the local level. Last but not least, the cooperation and collaboration of all interested parties (educational institutions, social assistance institutions, health institutions) at the local level is necessary to respond to the problem of children whose parents are working abroad. A close collaboration between educators, psycho-pedagogues, school counsellors and teaching staff in general, social workers, local authorities, family doctors, and priests is beneficial.

3.2. Measures/Programs: Assessment and Possible Solutions in the Field of Educational Policies to Enhance the Quality of Life of Transnational Families

The main objective of public programs should be to limit the negative effects of separation and to protect children’s rights (reducing the risk to which children may be exposed). If both parents and the legal representative are missing, children experience a limitation of their rights to education, health, and legal protection, but they may also experience restrictions in participation in recreational activities (e.g., camps, etc.)

The participants in the qualitative research (focus group discussions) were asked to give their opinion on the measures/programs intended to prevent and alleviate the social exclusion of children with parents working abroad, initiated by the Romanian Ministry of Education (MEC) and the Romanian Ministry of Labour and Social Protection (MMPS). It was the inter-institutional Romanian Working Group dedicated to children with parents left to work outside the country’s borders (constituted in 2016) who formulated a series of proposals intended to support this category of children (

Table 3. Measures/programs proposed by the Working Group dedicated to children with parents working abroad.

Measures/Programs in Educational Field	Measures/Programs in Social Assistance Field
Encouraging the assumption of a “big brother/big sister” mentor role by colleagues under the guidance of a teacher/conductor (“buddy system”).	Strengthening the local capacity to provide social assistance services by ensuring human resources (one full-time employee each) in the field of specialized social assistance (preferably social workers).
Twinning of schools, followed by camps abroad (financed by the community of residence of the parents), to stimulate the school performance of the children remaining in the country.	Professional training of staff in the field of social assistance.
Continuous communication between the school and the absent parents (e.g., minutes of meetings with parents, communications of various decisions made in the classroom regarding children and parents, Skype meetings with parents).	Consolidation of local capacity to provide psychological assessment services, psychological support (individual and group), psychological counselling, and referral to specialists (psychotherapists, clinical psychologists, psychiatrists). Maintaining permanent contact with the children’s family for issues related to the psychological condition of these children.
The training of teaching staff in managing various aspects related to children with parents that have left to work abroad (based on “best practices” from NGOs).

Source: INCSMPS database.

).

We note from the opinions expressed during the focus group discussions that these measures only partially achieved their goals, as a small part of the participants were aware of these proposals. The participants in the focus group discussions from the South-East region also mentioned other measures intended for children with parents that have gone to work abroad (apart from those initiated by MEC and MMPS), initiated/implemented by different entities, for example, the training of specialists at the level of territorial administrative units intended for NGOs that respond this issue.

National and international studies on transnational families and the effects of parents’ migration on children left at home emphasize the need to adopt complementary measures to support children and family members left behind.

The results of the sociological investigation based on face-to-face questionnaires confirmed the conclusions of previous research and support the need to adopt measures in different areas. In the field of education, supervision in completing school homework was considered necessary by 71.8% of parents and 64.5% of grandparents. Education on topics like the negative effects of drugs, alcohol, and other toxic substances was rated as an area where support is needed by most parents and grandparents.

In urban areas, the need for education about the negative effects of using drugs, alcohol, and other toxic substances (expressed by 74.3% of parents and grandparents) represents the most necessary measure needing to be developed, followed by support to avoid dropping out of school (with 74.8%) and school counselling (with 74.3%). The need for education about the effects of using drugs, alcohol, and other toxic substances also represents the most necessary measure needing to be developed in rural areas, with 59.1% of parents and grandparents who participated in the sociological survey from the two development regions of Romania mentioning the necessity of this measure (

Table 4. Necessary measures in the educational field dedicated to children with parents working abroad.

Necessary Measures in the Educational Field	Urban (%)	Rural (%)
School supervision for homework assignments	69.3	57.5
School counselling	74.3	55.1
Support for the development of individual learning skills	66.8	50.2
Support to avoid dropping out of school	74.8	57.6
Education concerning the effects of using drugs, alcohol, and other toxic substances	75.7	59.1

Source: INCSMPS database, authors’ own conception.

).

4. Discussion

4.1. Limitations of the Research

Our results must be analysed in the context of our methodological limits: the research only covered Macro-region 2 of Romania and it used a non-probabilistic sampling method. These limitations are mainly caused by the lack of administrative data regarding the investigated population. However, this study contributes to a better understanding of the main problems that may arise in the education of children from transnational families and the effects of these on the quality of life of all family members.

4.2. Suggestions for Policy Measures

There is a growing interest in the situation of children whose parents leave the country for work, due to the negative social, economic, educational, and medical consequences [18]. This concern is transposed at the level of public policy in the implementation of measures aimed primarily at reducing the adverse effects of parent’s migration on their child/children [18]. Current research [18,19,20,21] emphasizes that migration influences emotional processes at the family level, directly affecting the psychological and physical state of all family members.

Migration is a phenomenon that affects both the person who migrates and their family. The scientific literature [22] emphasizes that interventions are needed in the form of public policy measures to mitigate the negative consequences of such an event in the life of the family left behind in the country of origin. Démurger [20] points out that the effects of parents’ migration for work translate into negative effects on the school performance of children who remain in their country of origin. This is also confirmed by the results of other studies [23,24,25,26,27]. Qualitative results from focus group discussions with representatives of public and private Romanian organizations active in the field of social assistance for families and children whose parents migrated for work indicate a major need for intervention through support programs for those families that have at least one parent who has gone to work outside the country’s borders. This is also confirmed from the perspective of future beneficiaries of such programs through sociological survey results, which indicate a need for measures in the area of educational policies in order to avoid dropping out of school in percentages of 74.8% in urban areas and 57.6% in rural areas. In this sense, measures to prevent school dropout are necessary, and therefore the collaboration between institutions with an educational role and the family is a prerequisite. Similarly to other previous studies [28,29], the negative effects of parent migration on the emotional wellbeing of children left behind were also highlighted, despite improvements in living standards.

For children coming from families that have at least one parent who migrated for work outside the country’s borders, the data collected through the survey also indicate a need for the development of program measures in the following areas: supervision in the completion of school homework, support for the development of individual learning skills, and education about the negative effects of using drugs, alcohol, and other toxic substances. Moreover, the representatives of public and private Romanian organizations active in the field of social assistance for families and children whose parents migrated for work indicate difficulties in managing relationships within transnational families (see Table 2), hence the need for intervention in the areas mentioned by the participants in the sociological survey. These effects were reported also in other studies [29,30,31] and draw attention to the implication of this phenomenon for social services providers, as well as for policy makers.

In certain situations, the person responsible for the child/children left behind can have different views on education, and this may generate conflicts both with the parent who went to work abroad and with the child/children left in care. Data from our qualitative research (focus group discussions with authorities designated to manage the problems of transnational families) revealed the need to develop parenting skills training courses or parental counselling courses. The educational system should be prepared in this sense with the necessary human resources, but also with logistical resources, especially in rural areas where Romania faces a shortage of qualified workforce. The partnership between schools and families must be promoted more strongly in the case of children from transnational families.

The National Action Plan for the implementation of the Children’s Guarantee, adopted by memorandum on 31 October 2023, highlights that children from transnational families are affected by vulnerabilities related to the lack of continuity of care and access to various public and essential services, but mainly education. Against the background of the precarious dimension of the phenomenon of children whose parents have gone to work outside the country’s borders, caused by the shortcomings of the registration system of these children within public social assistance services and the educational system, the planning of support measures/programs remains extremely difficult. Children who temporarily migrate outside the country or whose parents work abroad are covered by two European documents (the Child Guarantee [32] and the EU Strategy for the Rights of the Child [33]) in the category of children in precarious family situations. National data show that in June 2023 there were 71,152 children in Romania with one or both parents going to work abroad [30,34], with a national distribution showing that the counties in the North-East development region had the most cases. However, the dimensions of the phenomenon are very likely underestimated given the number of Romanians who emigrated, many of them temporarily for work.

5. Conclusions

The results show that the quality of life related to children’s education is affected when a parent goes abroad to work. In addition to the education of children being affected, the influence is visible at the level of the socio-emotional and behavioural development of the child.

In order to improve the quality of life related to children’s education in families negatively influenced by migration, the main measures necessary to be implemented have the following aims: the correct collection of data on children whose parents work outside the country’s borders; the development of support services for the prevention of various negative phenomena associated with education (school dropout, behaviour problems within student groups); the development of remote courses dedicated to parents to strengthen the school–family partnership; and ensuring the human resources necessary to implement an effective educational act in schools, with a special focus on children from transnational families.

Future research should consider the development of indicators to measure quality of life related to children’s education in families affected by migration.

This article offers support to decision makers in the field of educational policies for effectively managing the real problems of children from transnational families, highlighting, at the same time, the need to substantiate the policies in the field on studies designed to evaluate these policies.