Thermal Stresses in Maize: Effects and Management Strategies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Maize Growth under Temperature Extremes
Growth Stages | Threshold Min. Temperature (°C) | Threshold Max. Temperature (°C) | Symptoms |
---|---|---|---|
Sowing–Emergence | 10 ± 2.2 | 40 ± 2.1 | Growth rate is severely decreased |
Sowing–Tasseling | 9 ± 2.7 | 39 ± 0.6 | Abnormal tassel growth |
Anthesis | 8 ± 0.5 | 37 ± 1.4 | Pollination failure may occur |
Grain filling | 8 ± 2.0 | 36 ± 1.4 | Substantial decrease in starch and sucrose production |
Whole maize crop | 6 ± 1.1 | 42 ± 3.3 | Low crop performance/Crop failure |
2.1. High Temperature Impacts
2.2. Low Temperature Impacts
3. Strategies to Mitigate the Effects of Temperature Fluctuations
3.1. Climate-Smart Agronomic Practices
3.2. Use of Plant Growth Regulators
3.3. Breeding for Thermal Tolerance
3.3.1. Breeding for Heat Tolerance
3.3.2. Breeding for Cold Tolerance
Inbred Line/Hybrid | Trait | Stress | Crop Region | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Parents: B76, Tx205 Inbred lines: C273A, BR1, B105C, C32B, S1W, and C2A554-4 | Low leaf firing and tassel blast | Heat tolerance | Texas, USA | [52] |
Hybrids: YH-1898, KJ. Surabhi, FH-793, ND-6339, NK-64017 | Improved grain yield | Heat tolerance | Punjab, Pakistan | [111] |
ZPBL 1304 | Heat shock protein | Heat tolerance | South Dakota, USA | [112] |
Howling Mob | Emergence and shootrRoot dry weight | Cold tolerance | Wisconsin, USA | [107] |
EP80 x Puenteareas | Emergence | Cold tolerance | Spain | [113] |
Hybrids: AR1262, DKC6697, DKC6804, and M2V707 | Leaf and root weights and root length | Cold tolerance | Mississippi, USA | [106] |
Papirika | Relative tassel length | Cold tolerance | Hokkaido, Japan | [54] |
3.4. Molecular Approaches
3.4.1. Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS)
3.4.2. QTL Mapping for Candidate Genes
3.4.3. Transcriptomics
3.4.4. Map-Based Cloning
3.4.5. Genome Editing
4. Limitations in Crop Improvement
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Growth Stage | Temperature | Yield Reduction (%) | Country/Region | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Silking | 6 °C above ambient canopy temperature for 3 days | 13% | USA | [16] |
Grain filling | 35 °C | 31% | China | [35] |
Pre- and post-flowering | 33 to 36 °C | 10–45% | Argentina | [29] |
Tasseling stage | 30–38 °C for 15 days | 14–17% | China | [24] |
Grain filling | 28–32 °C | 10% | US corn belt | [47] |
Reproductive stages | Each degree above 30 °C | 1–1.7% | Africa | [48] |
Strategy | Plant Growth Regulators | Concentration | Suboptimal Temperature and Growth Stage | Indicators of Stress Alleviation | Increment in Yield (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Seed priming | Fe | 8.5 mM | Chilling (12 °C) stress at seedling stage | Better early seedling growth, germination, and nutrient uptake | 13 | [80] |
Seed priming | SA | 20 mg L−1 | Chilling (10 °C) stress at seedling stage | Improved antioxidant enzymatic activities, water status, chlorophyll contents, and membranes structure | 25 | [89] |
Seed priming | CaCl2 | 2.2% | Chilling (12 °C) stress at seedling stage | Improved leaf expansion; net assimilation | 12 | [90] |
Seed priming | Kinetin | 100 mg L−1 | Heat stress (38 °C) at reproductive stage | improved stand establishment and phenolic contents and increased leaf area expansion and grain filling period | 18 | [91] |
Magnetic seed stimulation | - | 150 mT for three minutes | Chilling stress (≤10 °C) at stand establishment | Improved chlorophyll, phenolics, and gaseous exchange attributes | 20 | [92] |
Foliar application | Thiourea | 0.1% | Chilling stress (≤12 °C) at reproductive stage | Improved crop growth rate, water use efficiency, photosynthetic rate, and dry matter accumulation | 21 | [18] |
Foliar application | Moringa leaf extract | 3% | Heat stress (38 °C) at reproductive stage | Increase in leaf expansion and grain filling duration | 17 | [91] |
Foliar application | AsA | 20 mg L−1 | Heat stress (38 °C) at reproductive stage | Increase in antioxidant activities and membrane stability | 23 | [88] |
Foliar application | H2O2 | 20 mg L−1 | Heat stress (38 °C) at reproductive stage | Enhanced SOD, CAT, and POD activities and grain weight | 23 | [88] |
Gene | Target Trait | Effect of Gene | Approach Used to Characterize Gene Function | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
ZmDHN13 | Abiotic stresses | Oxidative balance | Over-expression | [125] |
ZmWRKY106 | Heat tolerance | Reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging | Over-expression | [126] |
ZmERD3 | Heat and cold | mRNA accumulation | qRT-PCR | [127] |
ZmbZIP4 | Abiotic stresses | Abscisic acid (ABA) synthesis | Immunoprecipitation sequencing | [128] |
GRMZM2G377194 | Thermo-tolerance | Increased seed set | Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping plus genome-wide association studies (GWAS) | [129] |
GRMZM2G060349 | Thermo-tolerance | Increased seed set | QTL mapping plus GWAS | [129] |
GRMZM2G122199 | Thermo-tolerance | Increased seed set | QTL mapping plus GWAS | [129] |
GRMZM2G026892 | Thermo-tolerance | Increased seed set | QTL mapping plus GWAS | [129] |
GRMZM2G148998 | Heat tolerance | High grain yield | QTL mapping and potential gene analysis | [118] |
GRMZM2G115658 | Heat tolerance | High grain yield | QTL mapping and potential gene analysis | [118] |
GRMZM2G537291 | Heat tolerance | High grain yield | QTL mapping and potential gene analysis | [118] |
GRMZM2G324886 | Heat tolerance | High grain yield | QTL mapping and potential gene analysis | [118] |
GRMZM2G436710 | Heat tolerance | High grain yield | QTL mapping and potential gene analysis | [118] |
GRMZM2G094990 | Heat tolerance | High grain yield | QTL mapping and potential gene analysis | [118] |
GRMZM2G178486 | Cold tolerance | Improved germination | Gene cloning plus GWAS | [124] |
GRMZM5G806387 | Cold tolerance | Improved germination | Gene cloning plus GWAS | [124] |
GRMZM2G148793 | Cold tolerance | Improved germination | Gene cloning plus GWAS | [124] |
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Waqas, M.A.; Wang, X.; Zafar, S.A.; Noor, M.A.; Hussain, H.A.; Azher Nawaz, M.; Farooq, M. Thermal Stresses in Maize: Effects and Management Strategies. Plants 2021, 10, 293. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10020293
Waqas MA, Wang X, Zafar SA, Noor MA, Hussain HA, Azher Nawaz M, Farooq M. Thermal Stresses in Maize: Effects and Management Strategies. Plants. 2021; 10(2):293. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10020293
Chicago/Turabian StyleWaqas, Muhammad Ahmed, Xiukang Wang, Syed Adeel Zafar, Mehmood Ali Noor, Hafiz Athar Hussain, Muhammad Azher Nawaz, and Muhammad Farooq. 2021. "Thermal Stresses in Maize: Effects and Management Strategies" Plants 10, no. 2: 293. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10020293