You are currently viewing a new version of our website. To view the old version click .
MDPIMDPI
Search all articles
Journal of Intelligence
Download PDF
  • Article
  • Open Access

22 November 2025

Relationship Between Well-Being and Inclusive Practice in Chilean Teachers: A Preliminary Analysis

,
and
1
Escuela de Psicología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago 9170022, Chile
2
Instituto de Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Intell.2025, 13(12), 152;https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120152 
(registering DOI)
This article belongs to the Special Issue Emotions, Well-Being and Intelligence: Assessment, Interventions and Professional Development
Version Notes
Order Reprints

Abstract

Although numerous studies address inclusive education, especially in Latin America, research analyzing the overall life satisfaction of teachers in schools that implement inclusion policies are scarce. The purpose of this study is to analyze the relationship between Life Satisfaction, Optimism, Culture, and the Inclusive Practice of primary school teachers from Chile. A descriptive quantitative method was employed, with an ex post facto design including 246 primary teachers from urban and rural schools in Chile. The teachers completed four questionnaires: Inclusive Culture (IC), Inclusive Practice (IP) Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWSL), and Life Orientation Test Revised (LOT-R). The results show that these instruments present acceptable reliability. In addition, a significant correlation was found between Classroom Experience Time (CET) and SWSL (r = 0.201, p < .01), as well as between SWSL, and LOT-R (r = 0.411, p < .01), and IC and IP (r = 0.838, p < .01). The regression model is statistically significant [F (4, 241) = 139.572, p < .001]. The findings indicate that IC and SWSL predict IP directly, whereas CET is an inverse predictor. There is a statistically significant relationship between Life Satisfaction, Classroom Experience Time, Culture, and Inclusive Practice, with the three first variables being predictors of Inclusive Practice.

1. Introduction

Well-being and inclusive education are both social demands and goals of contemporary social and education policies (; ). A review of the Web of Science (WoS) database about published scientific research on these topics reveals that, independently, the number of studies about well-being and inclusive education have sustainedly increased by thousands since the late 20th century. However, research analyzing the relationship between these two constructs is rather recent and comparatively scarce. Therefore, there is a knowledge gap that this study aims to fill.
UNESCO member countries have established agreements and legislative commitments to promote inclusive education in schools (2020). Diverse approaches address the concept of inclusive education (; ; ; ), and the challenge of achieving full inclusion in educational institutions (). UNESCO’s definition serves as a guide because it conceptualizes inclusive education as a systematic change process promoted by schools to eliminate the attendance, participation, and learning barriers of all students (). This definition is operationalized through the Inclusion Index proposed by Booth and Ainscow (; ) and has been validated in different studies and countries (; ; ; ; ).
Most studies on inclusive education in primary education have focused on students with special education needs (; ; ), as well as on the attitudes of teachers towards the inclusion of these students (; ; ). Research has also addressed the perceptions about the inclusion of migrant and refugee children (), students on the autism spectrum (; ), cultural diversity (; ; ), and linguistic diversity and migrants (; ). Recently, research has also focused on students from sexual minorities, considering their impact on learning and well-being (; ).
School Culture refers to the daily management and behavior of the members of the educational community, students, teachers, leadership, and management staff at school and in the classroom. It is shaped by beliefs and shared routines that are confirmed and changed through reflection on the practice (; ). In this sense, Inclusive Culture is a paradigm shift in school relationships, referring to positive approaches towards classroom diversity, participation, and learning of all students (; ; ); this variable experiences the tension between attention to diversity of students in the classroom or the integration that discriminate students who are different (). In turn, Inclusive Practice is the most visible and palpable elements of inclusion, given that practices make policies and culture concrete (); nevertheless, the relationship between Culture and Inclusive Practice is not automatic and is mediated by teacher reflection and self-efficacy (; ; ), as well as by having adequate resources to address diversity (). In light of the above, promoting an Inclusive Culture at schools implies fostering shared values, reflecting on practice, teacher self-efficacy, and necessary resources to cater to student diversity.
The achievement of inclusive education in schools is enabled by the positive attitudes and emotions of teachers (; ; ), their reflection on the teaching practice, and the resources available that influence teacher self-efficacy perception (; ; ; ; ), as well as the collaborative work with other professionals and the community (; ; ); all of this must be performed without neglecting either the initial or continued training of teachers (). In fact, the values and beliefs of teachers are key aspects to achieve educational and pedagogical inclusion in schools and classrooms (; ; ). It can be assumed that the success of inclusive education is related to the educational communities—students, teachers and professionals—that maintain adequate levels of well-being.
Teachers who work with students with special educational needs present levels of depersonalization that affect their occupational well-being and lead to emotional exhaustion, one of the main symptoms of the burnout syndrome (; ). Teacher self-efficacy favors educational inclusion and the perception of self-fulfillment, and increases when teachers interact with people with disabilities (; ) and when there is distributed and transformational leadership by management and teaching leadership in the inclusive classroom (; ). Adequate diversity management at school fosters a good organizational climate, which guarantees teachers’ high work satisfaction and positive emotions about their work (), but does not significantly moderate the interaction between attention to students with special educational needs and the emotional exhaustion of teachers in inclusive classrooms; furthermore, studies indicate that work commitment, work overload, and burnout occur simultaneously in inclusive classrooms (; ). In fact, research has found that, alongside teacher self-efficacy, other influential institutional and contextual factors (), such as coworker and management leadership, personality traits, and personal life events and changes—elements that suggest that future studies on burnout should consider its multifaceted nature (; ). Thus, a comprehensive understanding of the burnout phenomenon requires an examination of how Inclusive Practice in schools is related to Inclusive Culture, and also a broader perspective on well-being, as virtuous cycles that foster effective inclusion influences the mental health of teachers.
In turn, well-being has been researched from diverse theoretical and empirical perspectives, focusing on specific groups. In teacher well-being studies, the concept is defined as the predominance of positive appraisals of the teaching work, the consequence of personal traits, and the interaction context in the educational organization (; ). A systematic review of the scientific literature indicates that the study of teacher well-being focuses on the occupational dimension in relation to self-efficacy and resilience (; ; ), overlooking a comprehensive approach that considers all aspects of well-being, including the teaching profession itself (). From this perspective, overall Life Satisfaction allows for people to assess all of the dimensions and stages of life in their affective and cognitive terms, according to personal expectations (; ). This construct is measured with the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWSL) designed by (), widely used in psychological research, which has demonstrated adequate reliability in diverse cultural contexts, including the Spanish-speaking community (; ; ; ). In addition, a relationship has been determined between the overall Life Satisfaction and subjective well-being of teachers ().
The beliefs and positive attitudes towards inclusive education enable the actions necessary to achieve it (; ). From a positive psychology perspective, this can be explained through the dispositional optimism construct (), which is understood as the generalized expectations for the occurrence probability of favorable or positive events (; ). This construct has been measured using the Life Orientation Test-Revised or LOT-R (), which explains the attitude of people towards the future in all the dimensions of their life. LOT-R is an instrument widely used in psychological research to assess Optimism (; ; ). A systematic review indicates that higher levels of Optimism may bring benefits for physical and mental health, and LOT-R acts as an important moderator of positive expectations ().
Teachers lead the educational process and, consequently, are indispensable in the inclusive education process. Life Satisfaction and the optimistic disposition of teachers must be key aspects to facilitate the transition from homogeneity-based teaching to inclusive management that acknowledges and addresses heterogeneity in the classroom. However, the social changes experienced in recent decades have negatively impacted teacher well-being, reducing the acknowledgement of their role and generating sometimes unfair work conditions, including work overload and challenges for developing socioemotional skills that enable them to take care of the diverse needs of their students (). Teaching is among the professions with the highest risk for mental health issues due to work overload (), the perception of lacking the tools for addressing the specific educational needs of students (), the social devaluation of the teaching work, inadequate conflict management, and the precarity or absence of resources. Therefore, it can be implied that, in contexts where teacher malaise is predominant, inclusive education is unfeasible.
Life satisfaction reflects and permeates the emotions associated with daily actions in the diverse aspects of teaching practice. However, no studies were found that address inclusive education and teacher Life Satisfaction. This study aims to analyze the relationship between inclusive education and the Life Satisfaction, Optimism, Culture, and Inclusive Teaching Practices of primary school teachers from Chile. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) a positive and significant correlation was found between Life Satisfaction, Optimism, Inclusive Culture, and Inclusive Practice scales; (2) the length of Classroom Experience Time is directly correlated with Life Satisfaction and inversely correlated with Inclusive Practice; and (3) Life Satisfaction, Classroom Experience Time, and School Culture are the variables that predict Inclusive Practice.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

The participants were teacher and management teams from 12 primary schools located in urban and rural sectors of three Chilean regions, namely Metropolitana, La Araucanía, and Aysén. The southern regions (La Araucanía and Aysén) present the rural schools that serve populations with the highest socioeconomic poverty indicators according to the School Vulnerability Index (IVE), which reports the official numbers of the Government of Chile ().
Sampling was conducted using a simple non-probabilistic randomized procedure. The sample was composed of 246 participants whose ages ranged from 23 to 69 years (mean = 42 years). Teaching experience varied from 1 to 44 years (mean = 14 years). Of the participants, 187 were women (54 in rural schools and 133 in urban schools) and 59 were men (15 in rural and 44 in urban schools, respectively). Regarding their roles at school, 189 participants were classroom teachers—142 women, 47 men—30 worked as education support professionals—25 women, 5 men—and 27 were part of the management team—20 women and 7 men. All were generalist teachers, i.e., they taught all of the subjects to the same group of students. In conclusion, the sample was diverse in age and professional experience, with a predominance of women in the direct classroom teaching roles at the primary level of the participating schools.

2.2. Instruments

2.2.1. Inclusive Culture Questionnaire (IC) by () with 12 Likert-Type Items Ranging from 1 (Totally Disagree) to 4 (Totally Agree)

This instrument assesses appraisals about the achievements of the educational community based on shared values and beliefs about inclusive education, with items such as “The school works with organizations from the community” [our own translation]. Studies have already assessed the reliability of this index in Chilean population ().

2.2.2. Inclusive Practice Questionnaire (IP), (), with 17 Likert-Type Items Ranging from 1 (Totally Disagree) to 4 (Totally Agree)

This instrument measures whether classroom activities promote the participation of all students and overcome the existing barriers through items such as “Teachers are concerned with supporting the learning and participation of all students” [our own translation]. The reliability of this scale has been studied in Chilean population ().

2.2.3. Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) by () with 5 Likert-Type Items Ranging from 1 (Totally Disagree) to 7 (Totally Agree)

This scale assesses overall life satisfaction with the own life. It has a version adapted to the Chilean population, which has demonstrated a Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency = 0.82 ().

2.2.4. Life Orientation Test, Revised LOT-R, Version by (), Including 10 Items: 6 Assessing the Content and 4 Assessing Distractors

It measures the degree of Optimism or Pessimism of individuals in a 5-level Likert scale, where 0 indicates “strongly disagree” and 4 “strongly agree”. Of the 6 main items, 3 are written in positive direction, while the remaining 3 are in the negative direction for Pessimism. To calculate the total score, the negatively worded items are reverse-scored so that a higher score reflects greater Optimism. LOT-R has been adapted and validated in the Chilean population, obtaining a Cronbach’s alpha = 0.65 ().

2.3. Procedure

The data collection procedure was conducted online between October 2024 and September 2025. Ethical protocols validated by a Research Ethics Committee accredited in the country were followed. Schools were informed, and their permission was first obtained to then contact them in person and via e-mail. An informed consent letter was presented to them that guaranteed voluntary participation and response confidentiality. The estimated duration to complete the instruments was 15 min.
The data analysis was conducted by calculating the main descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) in order to achieve a comprehensive sample characterization and to synthesize the central properties of the construct variables (Inclusive Culture, Inclusive Practice, Satisfaction with Life, and Optimism). Likewise, to ensure the psychometric robustness of the instruments, the reliability of the four measurement scales was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, a statistical technique that guarantees the internal consistency and consistency with which items measure the latent construct and an indispensable methodological requirement for any subsequent analysis. Given that the study variables (Classroom Experience Time, Inclusive Culture, Inclusive Practice, Satisfaction with Life, Optimism, and Pessimism) are conceptualized and operationalized as continuous variables, Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was used to examine the bivariate associations among them. To conclude, Levene’s test was used to verify the homogeneity of the variance, and then a multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to determine the predictive capacity of the independent variables (Classroom Time Experience, Inclusive Culture, Satisfaction with Life, and LOT-R) over the dependent variable Inclusive Practice.

3. Results

The reliability of the instruments varies: the Inclusive Practice Questionnaire presents an excellent or very good reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.932; the Inclusive Culture Questionnaire has good reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.888; and the Satisfaction with Life Scale also exhibits good reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.868. However, LOT-R has poor reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.550. Nevertheless, when analyzing the Optimism direction, the reliability is acceptable (Cronbach’s alpha: 0.727), while in the Pessimism-direction items, the reliability is not acceptable (Cronbach’s alpha: 0.424) (see Table 1). These results, which are also confirmed by other studies using the LOT-R scale, suggest the importance of differentiating between the Optimism and Pessimism dimensions (; ).
Table 1. Pearson’s correlation between the study instruments and Classroom Experience Time of participants (n = 246).
Pearson’s correlation between Inclusive Culture and Inclusive Practice instruments is strong, positive, and statistically significant (r = 0.838, p < .01), confirming the interdependence between both in the context of inclusive education. Classroom Experience Time (CET) is significantly and positively correlated with Life Satisfaction (r = 0.201, p < .01) and has a negative and statistically significant relationship with Inclusive Practice (r = −0.147, p < .05). In turn, despite the weak correlation of Inclusive Practice with Life Satisfaction, Life Satisfaction shows a positive and significant relationship with Inclusive Culture (r = 0.212, p < .01) and with Inclusive Practice (r = 0.213, p < 0.01), as well as a moderate correlation with LOT-R (r = 0.411, p < .01). Optimism presents a weak, positive, and significant correlation with Inclusive Culture (r = 0.240, p < .001) and Inclusive Practice (r = 0.236, p < .01) and a moderate, positive, and significant correlation with Satisfaction with Life Scale (r = 0.491, p < .01). Meanwhile, Pessimism exhibits no correlation with Classroom Experience Time, Optimism, and Satisfaction with Life Scale, but presents negative and significant correlations with Inclusive Culture (r = −0.200, p < .01) and Inclusive Practice (r = −0.217, p < .01). These results support the theoretical constructs addressed by the instruments used in this study (see Table 1).
A multiple linear regression analysis was conducted in which the predictor variables were ET, IC, SWSL, and LOT-R, while the predicted variable was Inclusive Practice. Levene’s test indicated heterogeneity of variances between the men and women groups [F(1, 244) = 2.149, p = .023]; therefore, the linear regression was conducted by weighing the variable sex. The regression model is statistically significant [F (4, 241) = 139.572, p < .001] with a R2 = 0.698, which indicated that approximately 70% of the variance in Inclusive Practice can be explained in its relationship with the predictor variables. The variables that resulted statistically significant as predictors were Classroom Experience (B = −0.062, EE = 0.030, p = 0.040), Inclusive Culture (B = 1.233, EE = 0.056, p < .001), and Life Satisfaction (B = 0.151, EE = 0.076, p = .048). The other predictor variables did not show statistical significance (p > .05); see Table 2 and Table 3.
Table 2. Predictive descriptive variables of the regression model.
Table 3. Regression analysis of the Inclusive Practice variable.
Table 2 shows the descriptions of the variables considered in the regression analysis.
The relationship observed between Classroom Experience and Inclusive Practice is of negative direction. This confirms the findings reported in Table 1: the more the Classroom Experience, the lower the perception of Inclusive Teaching Practices, while the less Classroom Experience, the more the sensitivity to observe such practices. In addition, both Life Satisfaction and Inclusive Culture predict directly and positively the score of the Inclusive Practice Questionnaire, i.e., the perception and self-perception of Inclusive Practices.

4. Discussion

This study contributes to our understanding of the relationship between Life Satisfaction, Optimism, Culture, and Inclusive Practice in teachers from primary schools of Chile, based on evidence collected with reliable instruments. The questionnaires about Inclusive Culture and Practice are part of the Inclusion Index by () and support the self-assessment process of schools in their path to inclusive education. Furthermore, new empirical evidence is presented, which supports the good and excellent reliability of both questionnaires for the Chilean population, confirming previous results from Mexico () and Chile (). In turn, the Satisfaction with Life Scale by () shows good reliability between the teachers, management, and educational support professionals participating in the study. This finding updates and confirms the results of previous studies about the reliability of this scale in different populations, such as Chilean university students (), children, adolescents, and a Colombian population (), and Mexican university students ().
Some elements should be considered when using the LOT-R. The six-item test applied to primary school teachers showed low statistical reliability, lower than that reported in similar studies conducted in Chile with university students (; ) and similar to that found in a Venezuelan adult population (). Some studies suggest that the LOT-R can be addressed in two independent factors, namely Optimism and Pessimism (; ), being recommended to measure these two constructs separately (). From this perspective, this study contributes evidence on the bidimensional character of the LOT-R; in this teacher sample, the Optimism subscale showed acceptable reliability, whereas the Pessimism subtest did not.
Consequently, the data of this study indicates good and acceptable reliability in all of the instruments employed, which agrees with previous studies with other samples and countries. This allows us to address these analyses and results with more certainty. In this sense, the correlation analyses reveal that all of the analyzed variables confirmed the theoretical expectations. Specifically, this study provides evidence for a high correlation between Inclusive Culture and Practice (r = 0.838), which is consistent with the findings in a Mexican sample where r = 0.741 () and indicates a significant, strong, and bidirectional relationship between Inclusive Culture and Practice.
The Classroom Experience Time of teachers exhibits a weak, negative, but significant correlation with Inclusive Practice. This suggests that teachers with less Classroom Experience tend to show more disposition to acknowledge inclusive educational practices in their schools, while this disposition is significantly lower between those with more experience in the classroom.
SWLS presents a positive and statistically significant correlation with Inclusive Culture and Practice. This coincides with previous qualitative studies that indicated Community Support, Positive Climate, and Empathy as essential characteristics related to inclusion (; ), despite not specifically assessing Life Satisfaction. In this sense, this study contributes to this finding through a specific assessment of this variable and contributes to strengthening the evidence line already reported by other authors.
Likewise, the SWLS correlated moderately and significantly with the LOT-R, which is consistent with the theoretical constructs of both instruments. In fact, a positive life appraisal is related to positive expectations about the future. This study empirically evidences that overall Life Satisfaction has a significant relationship with dispositional Optimism, and both variables exhibit a significant relationship with Inclusive Culture and Practice. This finding contributes to considering well-being from a wide perspective and are not only associated with the professional role at school ().
In turn, the dimension of Pessimism on the LOT-R, despite presenting very low internal reliability, shows external validity in its negative correlation with the Inclusive Culture and Practice questionnaires. In fact, the available data of this study indicated that adopting low positive expectations goes in the opposite direction of the perception of a collaborative school community and the development of Inclusive Teaching Practice.
This study also reveals specific and direct relationships between positive variables traditionally research in the health, clinical, and social sciences fields, but not specifically in the field of inclusion and Inclusive Practice of school community members. In this sense, this study shows the relationship between Life Satisfaction, Optimism, Culture, and Inclusive Practice in education.
To explore possible causal and predictive relationships, a regression analysis was conducted. The results indicate that the variables of Classroom Experience Time, Life Satisfaction, and Inclusive Culture predict Inclusive Practice significantly and in different directions (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Predictor variables of Inclusive Practice in Chilean primary school teachers.
The available data demonstrate that Inclusive Culture and Life Satisfaction are conditions for the development of Inclusive Practice. In this sense, elements, such as reflection on the own classroom practice (), collaborative work with other professionals, community, and well-being associated with self-efficacy (), contribute to the perception of Inclusive Practice in educational institutions.
In turn, Classroom Experience Time predicts Inclusive Practice in an inverse direction: the longer the time working in the classroom, the lower the disposition to perceive Inclusive Practice, whereas teachers with fewer years of experience are more receptive to observing such practices. In addition, the more experience in the classroom, the more Satisfaction with Life.
These results open up new hypotheses that should be explored in further studies, such as the possible influence of social desirability in the responses of teachers with less experience in the classroom. It is also hypothesized that longer teaching practice could become a risk for mental health (), considering that changes in classroom realities have generated an overload in teaching practices (). Likewise, it is also possible that teachers with more experience in the classroom and overall Life Satisfaction have the conditions for making critical appraisals about Inclusive Practice without it affecting their commitment to inclusive education, with this being an explanatory hypothesis derived from the results of this study.
The practical implications of this study are significant and varied. The findings contribute to the design of educational policies that prioritize teacher well-being as a fundamental pillar for the promotion of educational inclusion at schools. In addition, this opens up the possibility to develop and implement intervention programs aimed at improving teacher well-being by offering training in coping strategies, mindfulness, and effective Inclusive Practice. These results are also invaluable for the initial (or pre-service) and continuous training of teachers, as well as raising awareness about the importance of well-being and providing tools for maintaining it in the context of inclusion. Finally, this study can contribute to the creation of more positive and supportive organizational climates at schools, promoting collaboration and the exchange of experience and leadership that adds value and fosters the well-being of all teaching staff.
This paper lays the foundation for a series of future studies. There is a growing need for more longitudinal studies that enable an understanding of the temporal dynamics between teacher well-being, Inclusive Culture, and implemented practices, analyzing how these elements influence one another over time. Enriching this panorama with qualitative methodologies would facilitate the in-depth exploration of teacher experiences, as well as the challenges intrinsic to Inclusive Practice and the strategies teachers adopt to take care of their own well-being. Comparing diverse educational contexts, such as urban and rural schools or different educational systems, could reveal the cultural and contextual factors that modulate these relationships. Lastly, the development and implementation of intervention studies focused on strengthening both teacher well-being and Inclusive Culture offer the opportunity to assess the effectiveness of support programs and strategies.

5. Conclusions

The results show a moderately significant relationship between overall Life Satisfaction and Optimism, both exhibiting a positive but low statistically significant correlation with Inclusive Culture and practices. Well-being comprises, but is not limited to, the school space, and is related to a positive appraisal of the cultural aspects of the school, such as maintaining high expectations (especially for students) and effort to reduce discriminatory practices. This is also linked to Inclusive Practice, such as concern with supporting the learning and the participation of all students.
This study confirms that Inclusive Culture and Life Satisfaction are key conditions for the best development of Inclusive Practice. Furthermore, Classroom Experience Time is related to overall life satisfaction and inversely predicts Inclusive Practice. These trends require further research to confirm and deepen this analysis (Figure 1).
The limitations of this study are the size of the sample and its non-probabilistic composition, which restrict the generalization of its conclusions. In addition, although the relationships found are significant, their magnitude is low, and, therefore, the results should be interpreted with caution. Nevertheless, the evidence gathered reveals relationships between the overall well-being of teachers and inclusive education that have not been studied, creating new research opportunities in other contexts. Likewise, these findings can guide the psychoeducational intervention to promote well-being from a wide perspective, considering it to be an essential component in efforts for achieving inclusive education.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.V.-P. and J.R.-E.; Methodology, M.V.-P. and J.P.H.-R.; Software, J.R.-E.; Validation, M.V.-P. and J.R.-E.; Formal analysis, M.V.-P.; Investigation, M.V.-P.; Resources, M.V.-P.; Data curation, M.V.-P.; Writing—original draft, M.V.-P., J.R.-E. and J.P.H.-R.; Writing—review & editing, M.V.-P.; Visualization, M.V.-P. and J.P.H.-R.; Supervision, M.V.-P.; Project administration, M.V.-P.; Funding acquisition, M.V.-P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico (FONDECYT), grant number 1240814.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Santiago de Chile.(protocol code 232/2024 and 15 April 2024 of approval).

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author to protect the confidentiality of the participants.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Abed, Mohamed G., and Todd Shackelford. 2023. Saudi Public Primary School Teachers’ Perspectives on Inclusive Education. Educational Studies 49: 614–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Ainscow, Mel, Tony Booth, and Alan Dyson. 2006. Improving Schools, Developing Inclusion. New York: Routledge. [Google Scholar]
  3. Arbia, Giula, Agostino Carbone, Irene Stanzione, and Giordano Szpunar. 2023. The Work-Related Stress and Well-Being of Teachers-an Exploratory Study within Primary Schools in Italy. Education Sciences 13: 505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Arias-Pastor, Mercedes, Steven Van Vaerenbergh, Jerónimo J. González-Bernal, and Josefa González-Santos. 2024. Analysis of Teacher Self-Efficacy and Its Impact on Sustainable Well-Being at Work. Behavioral Sciences 14: 563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Bahamón, Marly Johana, Lorena Cudris-Torres, José Julián Javela, Andrea Ortega-Bechara, Andrés Cabezas-Corcione, Álvaro Barrios-Nuñez, and Valmore Bermúdez. 2025. Life Satisfaction in Children: An Analysis of the Psychometric Properties of the Swls-C Scale by Diener. Bmc Psychology 13: 383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Bendová, Petra, and Anna Fialová. 2015. Inclusive Education of Pupils with Special Educational Needs in Czech Republic Primary Schools. Paper presented at 5th International Conference on Education & Educational Psychology (ICEEPSY), Kyrenia, Cyprus, October 2–25. [Google Scholar]
  7. Besic, Edvina, Lisa Paleczek, Peter Rossmann, Mathias Krammer, and Barbara Gasteiger-Klicpera. 2020. Attitudes Towards Inclusion of Refugee Girls with and without Disabilities in Austrian Primary Schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education 24: 463–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Booth, Tony, and Mel Ainscow. 2000. Indice De Inclusión. Desarrollando El Aprendizaje Y La Participación En Las Escuelas. Edited by UNESCO. Bristol: Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education (CSIE). [Google Scholar]
  9. Bustos-Rubilar, Mario, Carmen-Julia Coloma, Camilo Quezada, Cristobal Caviedes, Maria-Fernanda Morales, Javier Adrián, and Javiera País. 2021. The Fingerspelling as a Learning Support of the Reading Decodification Process in a Group of Chilean Primary School Students; an Exploratory Study. Revista de Educacion Inclusiva 14: 156–67. [Google Scholar]
  10. Campa-Álvarez, Reyna de los Ángeles, Blanca Aurelia Valenzuela, and Manuela Guillén-Lúgigo. 2020. Prácticas Docentes Y Cultura Inclusiva Para Colectivos Vulnerables De Primarias En Sonora, México. Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales, Ninez y Juventud 18: 227–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Carver, Charles S., and Michael F. Scheier. 2001. Optimism, Pessimism, and Self-Regulation. In Optimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice. Edited by E. C. Chang. Washington: American Psychological Association, pp. 31–51. [Google Scholar]
  12. Castillo Armijo, Pablo, Carlos Miranda Carvajal, Ivette Norambuena Sandoval, and Edith Galloso Galvez. 2020. Validación De Los Instrumentos Basados En El Index for Inclusion Para El Contexto Educativo Chileno. Revista de Estudios y Experiencias en Educación 19: 17–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Dávila, Juan Romeo, Juan Antonio Huertas, and Francisco Antonio Leal-Soto. 2024. Estructura Psicológica Del Bienestar Docente: Justificación De Un Modelo Situado. Revista de Psicodidáctica 29: 19–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Diener, Ed, Robert A. Emmons, Randy J. Larsen, and Sharon Griffin. 1985. The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment 49: 71–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Elsayed, Hala Abd Ellatif, Ghaida Almoabadi, and Maram Albeshri. 2025. Sociodemographic Correlates, Job Satisfaction, and Burnout among Special Education Teachers. Acta Psychologica 258: 105257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Espejo, Begoña, Marta Martín-Carbonell, Irene Checa, Yadid Paternina, Martha Fernández-Daza, Juan D. Higuita, Angela Albarracín, and Ara Cerquera. 2022. Psychometric Properties of the Diener Satisfaction with Life Scale with Five Response Options Applied to the Colombian Population. Frontiers in Public Health 9: 767534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Fiuza-Asorey, María, Manoel Baña-Castro, and Luisa Losada-Puente. 2021. Reflections on a School for All: Perceptions of Families and Teachers Regarding the Culture, Policy, and Practice of Inclusion in Galicia. Aula Abierta 50: 525–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Florian, Lani, and Mhairi Beaton. 2018. Inclusive Pedagogy in Action: Getting It Right for Every Child. International Journal of Inclusive Education 22: 870–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Gilar-Corbi, Raquel, Andrea Izquierdo, and Juan-Luis Castejón. 2025. Emotional Factors in the Psychological Well-Being of Future Teachers: A Structural Model. Journal of Intelligence 13: 70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Goldan, Janka, Lisa Hoffmann, and Susanne Schwab. 2021. A Matter of Resources?—Students’ Academic Self-Concept, Social Inclusion and School Well-Being in Inclusive Education. In Resourcing Inclusive Education. Edited by Janka Goldan, Jennifer Lambrecht and Tim Loreman. Cambridge: Emerald Publishing Limited, pp. 89–100. [Google Scholar]
  21. Görel, Gamze, Katja Franzen, and Frank Hellmich. 2024. Primary School Teachers’ Perspectives on the Quality of Inclusive Education. Teachers and Teaching 30: 327–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Hernandez-Ramos, Juan Pablo, and Fernando Martinez-Abad. 2023. Professional Development among Secondary Teachers in Spain: Key Associated Factors as of Pisa 2018. Journal of Intelligence 11: 93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Heyder, Anke, Anna Südkamp, and Ricarda Steinmayr. 2020. How Are Teachers’ Attitudes toward Inclusion Related to the Social-Emotional School Experiences of Students with and without Special Educational Needs? Learning and Individual Differences 77: 101776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Hornby, Garry, and James M. Kauffman. 2024. Inclusive Education, Intellectual Disabilities and the Demise of Full Inclusion. Journal of Intelligence 12: 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Huang, Fenxia. 2023. The Relationship between Trait Mindfulness and Inclusive Education Attitudes of Primary School Teachers: A Multiple Mediating Model. Frontiers in Psychology 14: 1280352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Jashes Morgues, Jessana Elizabeth, Nuria González Castellano, and Mª Jesús Colmenero Ruiz. 2024. Adaptación Y Validación De Un Cuestionario Basado En El Index for Inclusion: El Profesorado Y La Inclusión En Santiago De Chile. Revista Complutense de Educacion 35: 697–708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Juan-Morera, Borja, Icíar Nadal-Garcia, Belén Lopez-Casanova, and Eva Vicente. 2023. Self-Perception of Inclusion in an Inclusive Choir: An Analysis Using the Scale for the Assessment of Inclusion (Sai). Behavioral Sciences 13: 758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Junta Nacional de Auxilio Escolar y Becas [JUNAEB]. 2025. Prioridades 2021 Con Ive Sinae Básica, Media Y Comunal. Available online: https://www.junaeb.cl/ive (accessed on 20 January 2025).
  29. Jurado, Perla J., Ma. C. Soto, Miguel Conchas, and Raúl J. Nájera. 2019. Estructura Factorial De La Escala De Satisfacción Con La Vida De Diener En Universitarios Mexicanos. Formación Universitaria 12: 183–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Kuok, Angus C. H., Vitor Teixeira, Chris Forlin, Elisa Monteiro, and Ana Correia. 2020. The Effect of Self-Efficacy and Role Understanding on Teachers’ Emotional Exhaustion and Work Engagement in Inclusive Education in Macao (Sar). International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 69: 1736–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Kurniawati, Farida. 2021. Exploring Teachers’ Inclusive Education Strategies in Rural Indonesian Primary Schools. Educational Research 63: 198–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Liakou, Charikleia. 2023. German Language Teaching in a Multicultural Class in Greece: A Case Study About Students’ and Parents’ Perceptions of Plurilingualism. Societies 13: 187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Liu, Dongdong, Chenggang Wu, Yaxuan Meng, and Jing Dang. 2025. How Self-Belief in Creativity and Well-Being Is Associated with Life Satisfaction, Meaning in Life, and Psychological Richness: The Mediating Effect of Creative Self-Efficacy. Journal of Intelligence 13: 25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Losada-Puente, Luisa, Manoel Baña-Castro, and María Fiuza Asorey. 2023. ¿Cómo Valoran Los Niños La Inclusión Educativa? Opiniones Desde Escuelas De Educación Primaria. Revista Colombiana de Educación 88: 138–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. López, Mauricio, Gerardo Echeita, and Elena Martín. 2010. Dilemas En Los Procesos De Inclusión: Explorando Instrumentos Para Una Comprensión De Las Concepciones Educativas Del Profesorado. Revista Latinoamericana de Educación Inclusiva 4: 155–76. [Google Scholar]
  36. Malouff, John M., and Nicola S. Schutte. 2017. Can Psychological Interventions Increase Optimism? A Meta-Analysis. The Journal of Positive Psychology 12: 594–604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Martinic Valencia, Sergio, Marco Antonio Villalta Paucar, and Cecilia Assael Budnik. 2024. Reflexión Pedagógica Y Cultura Escolar De Escuelas Chilenas En Contextos De Pandemia. Revista ConCiencia EPG 9: 174–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Martínez-Santa, Jefferson, Martha Cecilia Arbeláez-Gómez, and Martha Lucía Garzón-Osorio. 2025. Educación Intercultural: La Mediación Pedagógica En La Participación De Estudiantes Emberas En Básica Primaria. Praxis 21: 177–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Morin, Gabrielle, Geneviève Audet, and Carine Umutoniwase. 2025. Achievement, Well-Being and Relationship Building: Investigating Teachers’ Values in Practice with Migrant Students and Families in Québec, Canada. Education 3–13: 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Muhammad, Ali E., and Yamin Liu. 2025. Enhancing Inclusivity in Primary Schools: The Role of Constructivist Teacher Education in Addressing Cultural Diversity. Education 3–13: 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Muñoz-Campos, Eva Mª, Antonio Fernández-González, and Liliana Jacott. 2018. Bienestar Subjetivo Y Satisfacción Vital Del Profesorado. REICE. Revista Iberoamericana Sobre Calidad, Eficacia y Cambio en Educación 16: 105–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación la Ciencia y la Cultura [UNESCO]. 2017. Guía Para Asegurar La Inclusión Y La Equidad En La Educación. Paris: UNESCO. [Google Scholar]
  43. Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación la Ciencia y la Cultura [UNESCO]. 2020. Informe De Seguimiento De La Educación En El Mundo 2020—América Latina Y El Caribe—Inclusión Y Educación: Todos Y Todas Sin Excepción. Paris: Oficina Regional de Educación para América Latina y el Caribe (OREALC/UNESCO Santiago). [Google Scholar]
  44. Orozco, Inmaculada, and Anabel Moriña. 2023. Exploring the Beliefs of Spanish Teachers Who Promote the Development of Inclusive Pedagogy. International Journal of Inclusive Education 27: 620–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Ortiz, Manuel S, Daniela Gómez-Pérez, Margarita Canoino, and Ana Barrera-Herrera. 2016. Validación De La Versión En Español De La Escala De Optimismo Disposicional (Lot-R) En Una Muestra Chilena De Estudiantes Universitarios. Terapia Psicologica 34: 53–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Otrebski, Wojciech. 2022. The Correlation between Organizational (School) Climate and Teacher Job Satisfaction-the Type of Educational Institution Moderating Role. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19: 6520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Ozturk, Mumine, Michael Wigelsworth, and Garry Squires. 2024. A Systematic Review of Primary School Teachers’ Wellbeing: Room for a Holistic Approach. Frontiers in Psychology 15: 1358424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Peña, Mónica, Claudio Herrera, and Antonio Moreno. 2022. Reconocimiento, Identidades Y Participación: Una Propuesta Crítica Para Pensar El Concepto De “Inclusión”. LÍMITE Revista Interdisciplinaria de Filosofía y Psicología 17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Petri, Dorien, Margreet Luinge, Klaas van Veen, Annelies Kassenberg, and Eddie Denessen. 2025. Cultural Knowledge of Students for Primary School Teachers: A Scoping Review. Learning Culture and Social Interaction 54: 100926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Pozo-Armentia, Araceli del, David Reyero, and Fernando Gil Cantero. 2020. The Pedagogical Limitations of Inclusive Education. Educational Philosophy and Theory 52: 1064–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Radojlovic, Jasmina, Tatjana Kilibarda, Svetlana Radevic, Milena Maricic, Katarina Parezanovic Ilic, Milan Djordjic, Sofija Colovic, Branimir Radmanovic, Marija Sekulic, Ognejen Djordjevic, and et al. 2022. Attitudes of Primary School Teachers toward Inclusive Education. Frontiers in Psychology 13: 891930. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Raudeliunaite, Rita, and Eglé Steponeniene. 2020. Supporting Factors for Primary School Teachers in Ensuring Inclusive Education for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Paper presented at the International Scientific Conference on Society, Integration, Education, Rezekne Acad Technologies, Rezekne, Latvia, May 22–23. [Google Scholar]
  53. Reppa, Glykeria, Marilena Mousoulidou, Eirini Tzovla, Christiana Koundourou, and Andri Christodoulou. 2023. The Impact of Self-Efficacy on the Well-Being of Primary School Teachers: A Greek-Cypriot Study. Frontiers in Psychology 14: 1223222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Rondón Bernard, José Eduardo, and Luisa Teresa Angelucci Bastidas. 2016. Análisis Psicométrico Del Life Orientation Test (Lot-R) En Población Diabética Venezolana. Ansiedad y Estrés 22: 11–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Ródio Trevisan, Karen Rayany, Roberto Moraes Cruz, Patricia Dalagasperina, Daniela Ornellas Ariño, and Andrea Valéria Steil. 2022. Revisión Sistemática Internacional Sobre Problemas De La Salud Mental De Los Docentes. Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana 40: 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Saloviita, Timo, and Eija Pakarinen. 2021. Teacher Burnout Explained: Teacher-, Student-, and Organisation-Level Variables. Teaching and Teacher Education 97: 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Scheier, Michael F., Charles S. Carver, and Michael W. Bridges. 1994. Distinguishing Optimism from Neuroticism (and Trait Anxiety, Self-Mastery, and Self-Esteem)—A Reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67: 1063–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Schmidt, Majda, Jasmina Densa, and Joca Zurc. 2024. Perceptions of Stress among Primary School Teachers Teaching Students with Special Educational Needs. Sustainability 16: 11242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Stemberger, Tina, and Vanja Riccarda Kiswarday. 2018. Attitude Towards Inclusive Education: The Perspective of Slovenian Preschool and Primary School Teachers. European Journal of Special Needs Education 33: 47–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Šilc, Mateja, Miran Lavrič, and Majda Schmidt. 2024. The Impact of Primary Schools’ Inclusiveness on the Inclusion of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Frontiers in Education 9: 1423206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Valle-Florez, Rosa-Eva, Ana María de Caso Fuertes, Roberto Baelo, and Rosario Marcos-Santiago. 2022. Inclusive Culture in Compulsory Education Centers: Values, Participation and Teachers’ Perceptions. Children 9: 813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Vera-Villarroel, Pablo, Alfonso Urzúa, Paula Pavez, Karem Celis-Atenas, and Jaime Silva. 2012. Evaluacion Del Bienestar Subjetivo: Analisis De La Escala De Satisfaccion Con La Vida En Poblacion Chilena. Universitas Psychologica 11: 719–28. [Google Scholar]
  63. Vera-Villarroel, Pablo, Natalia Córdova-Rubio, and Karem Celis-Atenas. 2009. Evaluación Del Optimismo: Un Análisis Preliminar Del Life Orientation Test Versión Revisada (Lot-R) En Población Chilena. Universitas Psychologica 8: 61–68. [Google Scholar]
  64. Vieira, Luc, Odile Rohmer, Mickael Jury, Caroline Desombre, Marine Delaval, Nadège Doignon-Camus, Anne-Clémence Chaillou, Claire Goulet, and Maria Popa-Roch. 2024. Attitudes and Self-Efficacy as Buffers against Burnout in Inclusive Settings: Impact of a Training Programme in Pre-Service Teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education 144: 104569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Villalta, Marco, Sergio Martinic, and Cecilia Assael. 2023. Condiciones Socioculturales De La Práctica Pedagógica En Tiempos De Pandemia. In Escenarios Y Tensiones Pospandemia. (Re)Lecturas Psicosociales En Tiempos Convulsos. Edited by Sergio González, Irene Magaña, Claudia Calquín and Dante Castillo. Santiago: RIL Editores, pp. 127–48. [Google Scholar]
  66. Villalta Paucar, Marco Antonio, Cecilia Assael-Budnik, Sergio Martinic-Valencia, and Jéssica Rebolledo-Etchepare. 2025. Reflexión Y Promoción De La Práctica Pedagógica En El Aula Rural Y Urbana Chilena. Perfiles Educativos 47: e61717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Villalta-Paucar, Marco Antonio, Cecilia Assael-Budnik, Sergio Martinic-Valencia, and Jéssica Verónica Rebolledo-Etchepare. 2025. Impacto de un programa de acompañamiento a la práctica pedagógica. Un Análisis Con Eye Tracking. Revista Mexicana de Investigación Educativa (RMIE) 30: 37–57. [Google Scholar]
  68. Wang, Dongshen, Liang Huang, Xianhan Huang, Meng Deng, and Wanying Zhang. 2024. Enhancing Inclusive Teaching in China: Examining the Effects of Principal Transformational Leadership, Teachers’ Inclusive Role Identity, and Efficacy. Behavioral Sciences 14: 175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Wang, Tiantian, Meng Deng, and Guoxiu Tian. 2022. More Leadership, More Efficacy for Inclusive Practices? Exploring the Relationships between Distributed Leadership, Teacher Leadership, and Self-Efficacy among Inclusive Education Teachers in China. Sustainability 14: 16168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Weißenfels, Marie, Manuela Benick, and Franziska Perels. 2021. Can Teacher Self-Efficacy Act as a Buffer against Burnout in Inclusive Classrooms? International Journal of Educational Research 109: 101794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Wiedebusch, Silvia, Stephan Maykus, Niklas Gausmann, and Muriel Franek. 2022. Interprofessional Collaboration and School Support in Inclusive Primary Schools in Germany. European Journal of Special Needs Education 37: 118–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Woodcock, Stuart, Umesh Sharma, Pearl Subban, and Elizabeth Hitches. 2022. Teacher Self-Efficacy and Inclusive Education Practices: Rethinking Teachers’ Engagement with Inclusive Practices. Teaching and Teacher Education 117: 103802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Wray, Emma, Umesh Sharma, and Pearl Subban. 2022. Factors Influencing Teacher Self-Efficacy for Inclusive Education: A Systematic Literature Review. Teaching and Teacher Education 117: 103800. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Article Metrics

Citations

Article Access Statistics

Journal Statistics
Article metric data becomes available approximately 24 hours after publication online.
Download PDF
Complex Motor Schemes and Executive Functions: A School-Based Dual-Challenge Intervention to Enhance Cognitive Performance and Academic Success in Early Adolescence
Previous