A Study of Korean Christianity from the Perspective of Chinese Religious Studies: Historical Evolution, Contributions, and Future Prospects

Abstract

Adopting the theoretical traditions and methodological approaches of Chinese religious studies, this paper systematically reviews the scholarly development, theoretical contributions, and methodological characteristics of research on Korean Christianity conducted by Chinese scholars. Through an in-depth analysis of the academic literature spanning the past five decades, the study unveils the developmental logic, theoretical innovations, and prospective research directions within this field. It finds that Chinese scholarship has progressed through distinct phases—from preliminary exploration to diversified inquiry—marked by an increasingly expansive academic vision. Core findings include: in-depth interpretations of mechanisms underlying the indigenization of foreign religions, nuanced examinations of the complex interplay between religion and socio-cultural dynamics, and the construction of theoretical models for cross-cultural religious transmission. The study also highlights current methodological limitations and proposes future research strategies such as interdisciplinary integration, empirical approaches, and theoretical innovation. These efforts aim to offer fresh perspectives for the study of religious history in East Asia.

1. Introduction and Contextual Framework

Note to Readers: Readers who are already familiar with the historical development of Korean Christianity and the history of Sino-Korean religious exchanges may proceed directly to Section 3, where the paper’s primary analytical contributions begin. Section 1 and Section 2 provide the necessary contextual framework and background orientation for readers seeking an overview of the subject.

The modern interpretation of religion within Chinese scholarship has long been informed by a cross-cultural comparative lens. In examining the historical development of religions in other countries and regions, Chinese religious studies has simultaneously reflected a paradigmatic shift toward interpretive pluralism. Among various East Asian contexts, the development of Christianity in Korea has garnered particular attention from Chinese scholars. As one of the countries in East Asia where Christianity holds substantial influence—accounting for nearly one-third of the national population—Korea plays a prominent role in the global Christian landscape. In comparison to China, Korean Christianity exhibits a distinct path of indigenization, close ties to nationalism, and unique patterns of social integration. These differences provide valuable material for Sino-Korean comparative research and have made the study of Korean Christian history an increasingly important topic within Chinese academia.

This study adopts and extends the theoretical traditions of Chinese religious studies, positioning Korean Christianity not merely as an object of comparative inquiry but as a crucial case for theoretical development. By systematically analyzing the divergent trajectories of Christianity in China and Korea, it seeks to construct new theoretical frameworks that illuminate the structural features and internal dynamics of religious evolution in East Asian societies. The comparative analysis reveals patterns of religious transformation that challenge Western-centric theories of secularization and religious modernization, offering alternative theoretical models grounded in East Asian empirical realities. This study transcends the boundaries of a conventional literature review by advancing three distinct theoretical contributions to the field of religious studies. First, it constructs a comprehensive theoretical model for cross-cultural religious transmission from the unique perspective of Chinese religious studies, integrating indigenous Chinese analytical frameworks with contemporary theories of religious diffusion. This model elucidates how foreign religions navigate complex processes of cultural negotiation, resistance, and accommodation within receiving societies, particularly in East Asian contexts where Confucian cultural substrates shape religious reception. Second, the study proposes an innovative interpretive framework for understanding mechanisms of religious indigenization that moves beyond surface-level adaptations to examine deep structural transformations in theology, ritual practice, and institutional organization. This framework reveals how Christianity in Korea achieved successful indigenization not merely through doctrinal adjustments, but through fundamental realignment with Korean cultural codes, nationalist aspirations, and indigenous religious sensibilities. Third, it develops a sophisticated methodology for East Asian comparative religious studies that synthesizes historical analysis, sociological inquiry, and phenomenological investigation. This methodological innovation enables scholars to conduct more nuanced comparisons between Chinese and Korean religious developments while accounting for their shared Confucian heritage and divergent modernization trajectories. By establishing these theoretical foundations, this study aims to contribute not only to the specific understanding of Korean Christianity through Chinese scholarly lenses, but also to broader theoretical discussions about religious transformation, cultural adaptation, and the dynamics of religious globalization in non-Western contexts. Furthermore, an analysis of how Chinese scholars have studied Korean Christianity reveals the methodological tendencies, theoretical contributions, and distinctive perspectives that Chinese academia brings to the broader field of East Asian religious studies.

Since the normalization of diplomatic relations between China and South Korea, Chinese scholarship on Korean Christian history has evolved from basic descriptive narratives to multifaceted analytical frameworks. Early research (1990–2000) focused primarily on historical overviews and comparisons of Christian transmission between the two countries (G. Zhang 1997; Z. Xu 2000). During the early 21st century (2000–2010), scholars expanded their focus to include the social functions and political implications of Korean Christianity, as well as its connections with Korean nationalism (Wang 2011). More recently (2010 to the present), attention has turned to the strategies of indigenization, theological systems, and the influence of Korean Christianity on China (Tang 2021; Y. Zhang 2021).

Although Chinese scholars have made significant contributions to the study of Korean Christian history, notable gaps remain—particularly in comparison to the more systematized research Korean scholars have conducted on Chinese Christianity. These limitations include a narrow methodological scope, disciplinary constraints, and a relative lack of engagement with contemporary Korean Christianity (Li and Wang 2020). Accordingly, a systematic review and evaluation of Chinese scholarship on Korean Christianity is not only essential for deepening academic understanding of the Korean context, but also offers methodological insights and fresh perspectives for future research in Sino-Korean religious and cultural exchange.

This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of Chinese academic research on the history of Korean Christianity—including both Protestant and Catholic traditions. It analyzes the evolution of research methods and theoretical frameworks, identifies existing shortcomings, and proposes future directions. Through a combination of literature review and comparative analysis, the study explores similarities and divergences in cultural adaptation, social reception, and missionary strategies, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of Christian development in East Asia.

It should be noted that this study adopts an inclusive approach to defining ‘Chinese religious studies scholarship,’ encompassing not only scholars based in mainland Chinese institutions but also those who, while working abroad, remain integral participants in Chinese-language academic discourse. This recognizes the increasingly transnational nature of contemporary scholarship, where researchers based in various countries contribute to Chinese religious studies through publications in Chinese journals and active engagement with debates in the field.

2. Historical Background: Essential Context for Comparative Analysis

As one of the world’s three major religions, Christianity has followed a distinct trajectory in its transmission throughout East Asia. Both China and Korea, deeply rooted in the Confucian cultural sphere, share certain parallels in the processes of Christian diffusion and localization, while also displaying notable divergences. The religious interaction between China and Korea involves not only the spread of Christian doctrine, but also intricate processes of cultural adaptation, political transformation, societal reform, and national identity formation.

Christianity was first introduced to China during the Tang dynasty in 635 CE, when missionaries from the Eastern Church—most notably Alopen from Syria—arrived in Chang’an. Given the frequent cultural exchanges between Tang China and the Silla Kingdom of the Korean Peninsula, this era provided a channel for the indirect transmission of Nestorian ideas to Korea. Although no systematic missionary activity took place at the time, some elements of Nestorian thought may have reached the peninsula through Silla envoys or students abroad (Korean Christian History Research Association 1991, p. 36; Yang 2004, p. 986).

During the Yuan dynasty, following earlier Franciscan missions such as Giovanni da Pian del Carpine’s diplomatic journey to the Mongol court (1245–1247), the “Ye-li-ko-wen” Church—aligned with the Papacy in Rome—rose to prominence. The establishment of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Khanbaliq (Beijing) in 1307 under John of Montecorvino marked the formal institutionalization of Catholic presence, opening another avenue for the expansion of Christianity. As Goryeo was a tributary state of the Yuan Empire, Christian elements likely entered the Korean court through royal diplomatic channels, contributing to religious and cultural exchange (Oh 1973, pp. 296–98).

In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci achieved significant progress in China. At the same time, Korean Confucian scholars began encountering Catholic teachings. Heo Gyun, a renowned Korean literatus who visited Ming China on a diplomatic mission, toured Catholic churches in Beijing and brought back Catholic doctrinal texts and catechisms, playing a pivotal role in the early transmission of Catholicism to Korea (Yang 2004, p. 988).

From the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth century, China and Korea demonstrated fundamentally different state responses to Catholicism. The Korean government implemented systematic and violent persecution, with the 1801 Sinyu Persecution marking the beginning of repeated waves of suppression that drove believers underground and resulted in numerous martyrdoms. The subsequent persecutions of 1839, 1846, and 1866 reflected a consistent policy of eradication. In stark contrast, recent legal–historical scholarship suggests that the Qing government largely avoided direct confrontation with Christianity, opting for limited legal measures that proved both insufficient and belated. Following the unequal treaties, the Qing administration essentially adopted a policy of benign neglect rather than active suppression. These divergent state approaches—Korea’s intense persecution versus China’s relative tolerance—shaped distinctly different trajectories for Catholic development in each country. Nevertheless, Catholic communities in both nations maintained transnational connections during this period, with the Chinese Church providing clerical support to Korean Catholics facing persecution, demonstrating that religious solidarity transcended national boundaries despite vastly different political contexts (Grayson 2009, p. 169).

In the mid-nineteenth century, the arrival of Protestant missionaries marked a new phase of Christian transmission in both China and Korea. In China, the Protestant mission was often perceived as aligned with Western colonial expansion, prompting strong cultural resistance. Nevertheless, Christianity gradually gained footholds in coastal cities through educational and medical services (Son 2002, p. 178). In contrast, Protestantism entered Korea later but under different socio-political circumstances. As the Joseon dynasty faced growing instability, Christianity became associated with nationalist aspirations and social reform. Unlike Catholicism, Protestant missions in Korea were predominantly led by Western missionaries and quickly aligned with the national independence movement. These early missionary endeavors often included social services such as medical care and education, which served as crucial means to reach the populace and build trust, a strategy identified by Chinese scholars as a key measure for Protestantism to gain a foothold on the peninsula (Shu 2014, p. 22). While Chinese Protestantism was primarily geared toward social reform, its Korean counterpart was closely tied to national consciousness and anti-colonial identity formation (Kane and Park 2009, p. 371).

Following China’s defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894), Japanese influence over the Korean Peninsula intensified, diminishing China’s geopolitical presence and disrupting Christian exchanges between the two nations. Korean churches began to align more closely with Japanese or Western ecclesial institutions (Liu-Farrer 2011, p. 67). In the early twentieth century, both Chinese and Korean Christian movements remained deeply intertwined with nationalist discourse. In the early twentieth century, Korean Christianity’s relationship with nationalism varied by denomination. Protestant leaders actively participated in the 1919 March First Movement, while the Catholic hierarchy, led by French missionaries, generally advocated obedience to Japanese authorities. Chinese Christians, in contrast, more uniformly engaged in anti-imperialist campaigns. However, Japan’s colonial isolation policies curtailed direct exchanges between the churches of the two nations. During the Japanese invasion of China and the Pacific War, Sino-Korean Christian ties were almost completely severed. Japan’s imperial “Kominka” (imperial subjectification) policies posed existential threats to the Korean Church, while Chinese Christians mobilized under a fervent patriotic ethos. Despite their shared resistance, direct interaction between Chinese and Korean churches was virtually nonexistent during this period.

Throughout the Cold War, although China maintained limited official ties with North Korea, religious communication between China and South Korea remained suspended. During this time, churches in Hong Kong and Taiwan served as indirect bridges, maintaining a fragile thread of transnational Christian connection. Following the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and South Korea in 1992, a new phase of Christian exchange began. Korean churches began actively supporting Chinese congregations through pastoral training and missionary initiatives, while Chinese theological thought gradually attracted scholarly attention in South Korea. As bilateral political relations improved, Christianity became an increasingly prominent topic in both academic and religious discourse.

Korean evangelical missions expanded into mainland China through a range of strategies, including social services, media platforms, and missionary dispatch. These transnational efforts extended Korea’s global religious influence (Tang 2021, p. 480). Nonetheless, the tension between Korean churches’ evangelical zeal and the institutional independence of Chinese churches highlighted fundamental differences in ecclesiological orientation and religious governance models.

In the twenty-first century, Sino-Korean Christian exchanges have become increasingly diversified and institutionalized. Theological scholars from both nations have participated in joint conferences and collaborative research, addressing themes such as indigenization, modernization, and the contextualization of Christianity in East Asia. Notably, China’s northeastern provinces, particularly theological institutions in Heilongjiang where Korean ethnic communities serve as cultural bridges, have played a significant regional role in facilitating these exchanges. Student exchanges and pastoral training programs have deepened mutual understanding and facilitated ecclesial cooperation (Jin 2015, pp. 16–18; Qiu 2008, pp. 121–23). With the continued expansion of academic interest in Korean Christianity, Chinese scholars are paying closer attention to the processes of religious transformation on the Korean Peninsula.

Amid the currents of globalization, cross-cultural research on Christianity—particularly on its East Asian trajectories—has gained scholarly momentum. Recent studies increasingly examine how Korean Christianity has succeeded in negotiating with traditional culture, socio-political reform, and national identity to form a robust and localized theological framework. This paradigm not only enriches the academic discourse surrounding Sino-Korean Christian interaction but also contributes to the broader integration of religious scholarship in East Asia. With this historical foundation established, we now turn to the central focus of this study: the evolution and characteristics of Chinese scholarship on Korean Christianity.

3. The Evolution and Development of Korean Christianity Research in Chinese Academia

The Chinese tradition of religious studies has long emphasized themes such as the indigenization of religion and cross-cultural religious transmission. Within this framework, Korean Christianity serves as a significant comparative case, offering insights into the distinct characteristics of religious development in China. Scholarly inquiry into the history of Korean Christianity by Chinese academics has evolved through three major stages: an exploratory period (from the 1970s to the 1990s), a phase of deepening analysis (2000–2010), and a stage characterized by diversified perspectives (2010 to the present). This developmental trajectory reflects both the increasing sophistication of Chinese scholars’ understanding of Korean Christianity and the gradual refinement of their methodological approaches. This section provides a systematic overview of the scholarly advancements made in Chinese academia by analyzing these stages and highlighting key research themes.

3.1. Historical Phases of Research Development

The trajectory of Chinese academic research on Korean Christianity has evolved through three distinct phases, each reflecting broader shifts in China’s academic landscape and international engagement.

3.1.1. Exploratory Period (1970s–1990s)

From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, Chinese academic research on Korean Christianity remained in its exploratory stage. Due to historical and political constraints, studies from this period were largely limited to macro-level descriptions and the collation of historical data, resulting in relatively limited depth and scope. As later observed by Li Zaixin and Wang Deshuo in their 2020 retrospective analysis, “Research institutions in Korea focusing on the history of Christianity in China are primarily located within church-affiliated universities” (Li and Wang 2020, p. 307).

The central topics during this phase included the introduction of Christianity into Korea and its subsequent development. Scholars traced the historical trajectory of Christianity from its arrival during the Joseon Dynasty to its evolution across different historical periods. Most studies from this era employed historical–narrative approaches, relying on textual analysis to reconstruct the transmission paths of Christianity in Korea. Some researchers also began exploring the relationship between Korean Christianity and Sino-Korean religious exchanges, particularly the activities of Korean missionaries in China. However, as J. Xu (2020) later noted in his assessment of this period, most of these works remained descriptive and lacked deeper analytical engagement.

A representative work of this stage is G. Zhang’s (1997) article, “On the Modern Fate of Christianity in China and Korea,” which offered a comparative analysis of the divergent development trajectories of Christianity in the two nations. Zhang argued that “Christianity experienced different destinies in modern China and Korea; comparatively speaking, its development in Korea was more successful” (G. Zhang 1997, p. 36).

Zhang Guangzhi exemplifies this generation’s trajectory. Trained in comparative history at Fudan University during the 1980s reform era, Zhang approached Korean Christianity through secular historical methods rather than religious studies. His institutional context—a state university emphasizing social scientific approaches—shaped his focus on Christianity’s political and social dimensions rather than theological aspects. After establishing the field’s foundations in the 1990s, Zhang shifted to broader East Asian religious studies, a pattern reflecting both personal interests and institutional pressures for wider teaching portfolios.

Additionally, some scholars began to investigate the relationship between Korean religious policy and social transformation. Nevertheless, limited access to source materials and methodological constraints meant that research during this period remained largely introductory in nature, with insufficient analytical depth. In a retrospective analysis, Han (2014) summarized that post-diplomatic normalization studies mainly focused on “pre-introduction Christianity on the Korean Peninsula, historical transmission of Christianity, church case studies, and the role of Christianity in Korean modernization” (Han 2014, p. 91).

3.1.2. Phase of Deepening Analysis (2000–2010)

Entering the 21st century, along with the progressive deepening of Sino-Korean relations and the expansion of academic exchanges, research on the history of Korean Christianity in China entered a new stage—one of deepened inquiry. This period was marked by a growing diversification of research themes, moving beyond historical narratives to investigate the profound influence of Korean Christianity across social, political, and cultural domains.

Writing retrospectively in 2011, Su Hang identified six major thematic areas that characterized the 2000–2010 period: “the contemporary religious landscape in Korea, the modern missionary history of Korean Christianity, the conflict between Eastern and Western civilizations, the transformation of Korean society and politics under Christian influence, the indigenization process of Korean Christianity, and the relationship between Christianity and inter-Korean political dynamics” (Su 2011, p. 107).

Representative of this period’s scholarship, Z. Xu (2001) not only examined the transmission process of Christianity in Korea, but also offered an in-depth analysis of its interaction with Korean sociocultural structures. He argued that “as a foreign religious culture, Christianity’s ability to spread and exert lasting influence in both China and Korea depends largely on the cultural contexts of the two countries” (Z. Xu 2001, p. 33). This cultural determinism framework has been influential, though recent scholarship suggests the need to consider additional factors such as transnational networks and local agency. During this phase, scholars began introducing theories of religious indigenization, focusing on how Christianity adapted and evolved within Korea’s unique cultural environment. Yi and Shi (2006) noted that “when Christianity entered the Korean Peninsula, it not only aligned itself with the patriotic independence movement but also found resonance with Korea’s native Shamanistic conceptions of deity” (Yi and Shi 2006, p. 91).

Concurrent with these theoretical developments, researchers began examining Korean Christianity’s transnational exchanges and its influence on China, particularly the activities of Korean missionaries in China and their social impact. Sun (2004) observed that “Compared to China, Christianity has achieved greater success in Korea. This disparity is primarily shaped by differences in the political environment, cultural characteristics, and the extent of Christian indigenization in each country” (Sun 2004, p. 106). This period also saw increased attention to the relationship between Korean Christianity and broader themes of East Asian modernization and nationalism, laying the groundwork for more comprehensive studies in the following decade.

3.1.3. Stage of Diversified Perspectives (2010–Present)

Since 2010, Chinese scholarship on Korean Christianity has entered a phase defined by diversified and globalized perspectives. Interdisciplinary approaches have emerged as a new trend, with scholars increasingly integrating insights from sociology, anthropology, political science, and other fields to analyze the multifaceted impacts of Korean Christianity.

Su (2012), for example, employed methods from the sociology of religion and cultural anthropology to examine the indigenization of Korean Christianity. She argued that “Korean Christianity has already become a ‘Korean-style Christianity,’ and this process of contextualization has received broad international recognition” (Su 2012, p. 4). Su’s analysis provides valuable insights into indigenization processes, though it would benefit from more engagement with contemporary Korean theological discourse.

Su Hang’s academic trajectory exemplifies the opportunities and limitations facing young Chinese scholars studying Korean Christianity at that time. Her 2012 doctoral dissertation at Central University for Nationalities benefited from newly available fieldwork opportunities in Korea and institutional support for empirical research. However, her subsequent expansion from Korean Christianity to general religious studies reflects persistent structural challenges: limited academic positions for Korea specialists, minimal funding for sustained field research, and institutional pressure to pursue topics with broader appeal. This pattern—initial specialization followed by generalization—is prevalent among many Chinese scholars in this field and helps explain why systematic, long-term research programs remain underdeveloped.

In terms of methodology, a growing number of scholars began to move beyond traditional literature-based studies by incorporating empirical research and fieldwork. This methodological diversification enriched the analytical depth and expanded the evidential base of their findings. Z. Zhang (2012) advocated for this methodological expansion, while Tang (2021) exemplified it by combining documentary analysis with field observations and statistical data to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the current status of Korean Christianity and its influence on China.

Comparative research perspectives have also become increasingly prominent during this period. Scholars have employed cross-national comparisons between Chinese and Korean models of Christian development to explore the adaptability of Christianity under varying socio-cultural contexts. Y. Zhang (2021) investigated the similarities and differences between indigenization theories in the two countries, uncovering underlying cultural and theological divergences in their Christian development paths.

Building on earlier studies of transnational exchanges, Xu and Zhu (2018)1 emphasized that, as a critical topic in “Asian Christian studies,” more attention should be paid to the interplay between political forms in modern Asian history and Christianity, particularly “the relationships between Christianity and imperialism, colonialism, nationalism, socialism, and capitalism” (Xu and Zhu 2018, p. 67). Additional themes explored during this period included the relationship between Korean Christianity and East Asian modernization, nationalism, and global missionary movements (M. Xu 2016).

3.2. Core Research Themes and Contributions

Based on both contemporary studies from each period and later retrospective analyses, Chinese scholarship on the history of Korean Christianity has gradually coalesced around several core research themes. These include the historical development of Korean Christianity, its indigenization process, its roles in political movements and social transformation, and its influence in education and public welfare. Of particular significance is the sustained interest in the historical relationship between Korean Christianity and China.

3.2.1. Historical Development and Transmission Studies

In exploring the historical development of Korean Christianity, Chinese scholars have primarily employed textual analysis and comparative historical methods to investigate various stages in the religion’s journey from its introduction on the Korean Peninsula to its modernization. In their 2020 comprehensive survey, Li Zaixin and Wang Deshuo noted that Chinese research output following the normalization of diplomatic relations between China and Korea focused primarily on the pre-introduction history of Christianity in Korea, its subsequent transmission, and notable legal cases involving the church. While these contributions have established a foundational framework for academic inquiry, many areas still suffer from insufficient depth and theoretical integration.

For instance, J. Xu (2020) conducted a detailed analysis of Christian policy developments in both China and North Korea. He identified three broad phases: prohibition, relaxation, and tolerance. However, he also noted significant differences in how each country implemented these phases, reflecting the distinct political structures and societal dynamics shaping religious transmission in each context (J. Xu 2020, p. 3).

3.2.2. Indigenization and Cultural Adaptation

Regarding the indigenization of Korean Christianity, Chinese scholars generally agree that the key to Christianity’s successful entrenchment in Korea lies in its deep integration with native Korean culture. Su (2012) argued that the successful localization of Korean Christianity is not merely a theological adaptation but the result of Christianity’s close alignment with Korean cultural traditions, historical experiences, and pressing social needs.

Y. Zhang (2021), in her comparative analysis of indigenization theories in China and North Korea, explored the divergent paths taken by theologians in both countries and assessed the corresponding social impacts. Her study revealed how cultural differences deeply shape the contextualization of Christian doctrine, highlighting the dynamic nature of indigenization across different socio-cultural settings. This area of research has further underscored the theoretical flexibility of religious localization, especially when applied to East Asian contexts such as Korea. It also illustrates how theological adaptation can reflect and respond to the broader demands of nationhood, identity, and cultural preservation.

3.2.3. Social Transformation and Political Movements

Beyond the study of indigenization, the role of Korean Christianity in social transformation, political movements, education, and public welfare has also become a focal point in Chinese academic discourse. Wang (2011) observed that although Christianity holds significant status in both China and Korea, its social functions and cultural manifestations differ markedly between the two nations (Wang 2011, p. 113). Wang’s comparative framework offers useful insights, though his analysis would be strengthened by incorporating recent Korean scholarship on church-state relations.

Yi and Shi (2006) explored the role of Christianity in Korea’s independence movement, emphasizing how its alignment with nationalist ideals created favorable conditions for its dissemination across Korean society (Yi and Shi 2006, pp. 91–92). This multidimensional framing of Christianity’s political entanglements in Asia provides important theoretical tools for understanding the religion’s layered historical roles and offers new directions for future research on transnational religious movements.

3.2.4. Sino-Korean Christian Exchanges

The historical relationship between Korean Christianity and China has remained a central focus for Chinese scholars. Wang (2011) examined the national-level roles and statuses of Christianity in both China and Korea, analyzing their respective trajectories and the underlying socio-political forces that shaped them.

Tang (2021), in his recent comprehensive study, investigated the current state and developmental trends of Korean Christianity, with particular attention to its influence on China. He noted that the distinct features of Korean Christianity—namely its nationalistic orientation, strong social engagement, political adaptability, and missionary expansionism—have directly influenced its strategies and scale of missionary activity in China. These characteristics, Tang argued, significantly shape the overall assessment of Korean Christianity’s outreach in China and determine the strategic approaches adopted for cross-border evangelism (Tang 2021, p. 478).

3.3. Methodological Evolution and Current Limitations

In summary, Chinese research on the history of Korean Christianity has progressed from an initial stage of exploration, through a period of deepening inquiry, to a current phase marked by methodological diversification and interdisciplinary enrichment. Thematic focus and research approaches have continuously evolved, contributing valuable perspectives to the broader field of cross-cultural religious studies.

However, current research still faces certain limitations. First, there remains an overreliance on textual and historical analysis, with insufficient empirical and field-based research. Second, engagement with contemporary developments in Korean Christianity under globalization remains limited. Third, there is a relative lack of in-depth analysis concerning how Korean Christianity adapts to, or interacts with, global religious networks, transnational missions, and theological innovations in the 21st century.

Addressing these gaps will be essential for further advancing the field and positioning Chinese scholarship within international academic dialogues on religion in East Asia. Future research should intensify the use of phenomenological, anthropological, and psychological methods to explore dimensions such as faith experiences, ritual practices, and underlying belief systems. In the field of the sociology of religion, more attention should be directed to micro-level community studies, quantitative analysis, and the application of religious market theory. Moreover, expanding research on global religious networks and the role of Korean Christianity within them will provide a broader foundation for scholarly advancement. Interdisciplinary approaches, deeper fieldwork, and greater emphasis on contemporary developments in Korean Christianity will together enrich and elevate the academic trajectory of this field.

4. Contributions and Reflections of Chinese Scholarship on the History of Korean Christianity

Chinese scholars have established a relatively comprehensive academic framework in the study of Korean Christian history, achieving remarkable accomplishments, particularly in historical reconstruction, comparative analysis, and indigenization studies. This trajectory reflects a progressively deepening scholarly vision—from examining the pre-Christian era to systematically analyzing the dissemination process of Christianity—thereby sketching a macroscopic panorama of Korean Christianity’s development while delving into its mechanisms of cultural accommodation within specific historical contexts. This section aims to assess the principal contributions of Chinese scholars in this field, analyze the characteristics of current research, and critically reflect on prevailing methodological paradigms.

The study of Korean Christianity in Chinese academia not only highlights the characteristics of the research subject but also reflects the methodological orientation and theoretical concerns of Chinese religious studies. Chinese religious scholarship emphasizes the interactive relationship between religion and socio-cultural structures, a tradition fully reflected in the study of Korean Christianity. In contrast to Western religious studies, which often prioritize theology and doctrine, Chinese approaches emphasize religion’s practical functions in social transformation and its interplay with national identity and cultural traditions. This distinctive perspective has led Chinese scholars to pay special attention to the interaction between Christianity and Confucian culture, the role of religion in national independence movements, and the social foundations of Christian indigenization, thereby forming a uniquely Chinese paradigm for the study of religion.

First, Chinese scholars have laid a solid foundation for future academic inquiry by systematically constructing a research framework for the history of Korean Christianity. Early studies predominantly focused on historical narration, but as the field matured, attention gradually expanded to deeper explorations of indigenization and the socio-cultural impact of Korean Christianity. Through comparative studies of the transmission pathways of Christianity in China and Korea, researchers have illuminated how the faith adapts to differing cultural milieus. This comparative framework not only aids in understanding how Christianity has developed across East Asian societies, but also offers a theoretical basis for subsequent research on religious indigenization (Han 2014; G. Zhang 1998).

Second, in applying theories of religious indigenization to the Korean context, Chinese scholars have offered new analytical perspectives—particularly in examining how Korean Christianity has merged with indigenous culture, including elements of Shamanism and the nationalist independence movement. Yi and Shi (2006) emphasized that the successful rooting of Christianity in Korea hinged on its deep cultural compatibility with local traditions, especially in theological interpretations and religious practices. This perspective provides profound insight into how religions transform and adapt within specific cultural contexts, and it offers valuable references for the indigenization of other religions in diverse settings (Yi and Shi 2006, p. 91).

However, Chinese scholars diverge significantly in their assessments of this indigenization process. Su Hang’s optimistic characterization of ‘Korean-style Christianity’ that has gained international recognition contrasts sharply with Zhang Yinge’s more critical perspective, which questions whether surface-level adaptations mask fundamentally unchanged Western theological structures. This debate reflects broader tensions within Chinese religious studies regarding the criteria for evaluating successful religious localization versus superficial cultural accommodation.

From the perspective of the history of religious transmission, Chinese scholars have explored not only the institutional development of Christianity but also the contextualization of belief systems. Employing frameworks from the phenomenology of religion, researchers have analyzed the historical evolution of Korean Christianity and examined how its theological concepts, ritual forms, and organizational structures have been reshaped to meet local cultural needs. Su (2012), in her analysis of the indigenization of Korean Christianity, asserted that this localization process has gained global recognition (Su 2012, p. 4). This multidimensional analytical lens has enabled scholars to better understand how religion adapts and transforms within specific cultural environments, thereby revealing the profound societal and cultural implications of religious practice.

In the realm of the sociology of religion, scholars have increasingly focused on the role of Christianity in driving social transformation, particularly in the processes of modernization and anti-colonial resistance. Yi and Shi (2006) conducted in-depth studies on Christianity’s role in Korea’s independence movement, analyzing how the faith aligned with Korean nationalism to promote its dissemination across society (Yi and Shi 2006, p. 92). This line of inquiry underscores the integrative and transformative functions of religion, especially under conditions of political, economic, and cultural upheaval, where it often emerges as a potent force within broader social dynamics.

Notably absent from most Chinese scholarship is acknowledgment that Korean Catholic leadership often collaborated with Japanese colonial authorities, a historical reality that complicates the dominant narrative of Christian resistance. This selective emphasis on Christianity’s anti-colonial role while overlooking instances of accommodation reveals how contemporary Chinese concerns about religion-state relations shape historical interpretations. The tendency to highlight Korean Christianity’s nationalist alignment while minimizing its colonial compromises suggests that Chinese scholars project their own society’s anxieties about religious autonomy onto Korean historical analysis.

Despite the notable achievements of Chinese scholars in this field, current research methodologies still offer room for further expansion—particularly in the application of religious phenomenology and anthropology. Scholars are encouraged to engage more deeply with the lived experiences of Korean Christian believers, including their rituals, symbolic systems, and everyday religious practices. Future research should incorporate more rigorous fieldwork, especially investigations into localized ceremonies, communal activities, and devotional life among Korean Christians. Building on existing work in comparative religion, scholars should also broaden the scope of cross-cultural studies—not only deepening the comparative analysis between Chinese and Korean Christianity, but also extending it to other East Asian societies and Western Christian traditions. Such efforts would not only enhance our understanding of the indigenization of Korean Christianity but would also contribute to global discourses on the transmission and adaptation of religion.

From a methodological standpoint, there remains considerable potential in integrating macro-level and micro-level analyses, particularly through interdisciplinary approaches and diversified data sources. Although existing studies have effectively addressed the role of Christianity in social transformation, there is still a need for more granular research focusing on micro-level religious communities. Employing quantitative methods to conduct systematic surveys on Christian demographics in Korea—such as church distribution, membership composition, and growth patterns—can provide solid empirical grounding for academic inquiry (Z. Zhang 2012, p. 37). While Zhang’s call for quantitative methods marks an important methodological advancement, its practical implementation in Chinese scholarship remains limited. Additionally, while religious market theory is well-established in Western scholarship, its application to Chinese religious studies offers fresh analytical perspectives for understanding how Christianity competes, attracts adherents, and innovates organizationally in modern society. This perspective enhances our understanding of how religion adapts and evolves under conditions of globalization.

Finally, the study of religious networks and identity construction within the context of globalization remains a vital direction for future research. The transnational networks of Korean Christianity encompass not only domestic religious practices but also its global expansion and influence. Scholars should pay close attention to how Korean Christianity functions and confronts challenges within the global religious landscape, particularly how it interacts with diverse cultural and political forces worldwide. Deepening this line of inquiry would significantly enhance both the scope and depth of research.

It should be acknowledged that Chinese scholarship on Korean Christianity faces certain methodological constraints. The predominant reliance on Chinese-language sources and limited access to Korean primary materials may affect the comprehensiveness of some analyses. Moreover, the reception of Chinese interpretations within Korean and international academic communities remains underexamined. Future research should engage more critically with primary sources and international scholarship to enhance analytical rigor and cross-cultural dialogue.

In summary, although Chinese scholars have made significant strides in the study of Korean Christian history, there remains substantial room for further development. Future research should intensify the use of phenomenological, anthropological, and psychological methods to explore dimensions such as faith experiences, ritual practices, and underlying belief systems. In the field of the sociology of religion, more attention should be directed to micro-level community studies, quantitative analysis, and the application of religious market theory. Moreover, expanding research on global religious networks and the role of Korean Christianity within them will provide a broader foundation for scholarly advancement. Interdisciplinary approaches, deeper fieldwork, and greater emphasis on contemporary developments in Korean Christianity will together enrich and elevate the academic trajectory of this field.

5. Future Directions for Research

Building upon the foregoing analysis, several key areas warrant further development in Chinese scholarship on Korean Christianity.

First, comparative research between Chinese and Korean Christianity should deepen beyond parallel descriptions to examine interactive dynamics. While current studies identify differences in development trajectories (G. Zhang 1997; Z. Xu 2001, p. 33), future work should analyze how Korean missionary activities influence Chinese Christianity and vice versa (Tang 2021, p. 478). This includes examining the role of ethnic Korean communities in Northeast China as mediators of religious exchange, particularly through theological institutions in Heilongjiang province. Such research would illuminate transnational religious networks and their impact on local Christian practices in both countries.

Second, contemporary developments in Korean Christianity deserve greater attention from Chinese scholars. As South Korea experiences church decline and secularization pressures, paralleling trends in Western Christianity, Chinese researchers have unique perspectives to offer on how Christianity navigates modernization in East Asian contexts (Sun 2004, p. 106). The digitalization of religious practice, particularly accelerated during the COVID-19 pandemic, presents new research opportunities. Changing patterns among younger believers—including declining church attendance but persistent spiritual seeking—and Korean Christianity’s evolving global missionary strategies all merit investigation (Su 2012, p. 4). These should be studied not as isolated phenomena but as interconnected responses to broader societal transformations affecting religious life across East Asia.

Third, methodological diversification remains essential for advancing the field. While historical-textual analysis has dominated Chinese scholarship, incorporating ethnographic fieldwork, quantitative surveys, and systematic engagement with Korean primary sources would strengthen empirical foundations (Z. Zhang 2012, pp. 36–37). The application of religious market theory and other social scientific frameworks offers analytical possibilities for understanding competitive religious dynamics in East Asia. Network analysis could reveal patterns of transnational religious connections, while digital humanities approaches might uncover new insights from textual corpora. However, these quantitative methods should complement rather than replace humanistic approaches that capture theological subtleties and cultural nuances (M. Xu 2016, pp. 5–6). The integration of multiple methodologies would enable more comprehensive understanding of Korean Christianity’s multifaceted nature.

Finally, international collaboration needs substantial strengthening to elevate Chinese contributions to global discussions. Joint research initiatives between Chinese and Korean scholars, increased participation in international conferences, and strategic publication in high-impact international journals would enhance the field’s visibility (Editorial Department of Korean Studies Series 2000, p. 224). Collaborative projects examining Christianity’s role in East Asian modernization, comparative studies of religious responses to secularization, and joint investigations of transnational missionary networks could position Chinese scholarship at the forefront of global religious studies. The field’s long-term sustainability depends on demonstrating theoretical significance beyond regional studies, contributing innovative frameworks for understanding religious transformation and Christianity’s adaptation in non-Western contexts.

These directions, while ambitious, build naturally upon existing strengths in Chinese scholarship while addressing current limitations. Success in these areas would establish Chinese research on Korean Christianity as an indispensable voice in international academic discourse.

6. Conclusions

This study has systematically analyzed the academic evolution, theoretical contributions, and methodological features of Chinese scholarship on the history of Korean Christianity, illuminating both the field’s internal development logic and future research pathways. Through a comprehensive examination of academic literature spanning nearly five decades, the study demonstrates not only the accumulated theoretical achievements by Chinese scholars but also offers a critical reflection on the inherent limitations of existing paradigms. It identifies a clear trajectory of phased development: from the exploratory phase in the late 1970s to today’s increasingly diversified approaches. The research content has expanded from early historical narratives and missionary chronologies to include broader themes such as localization processes, social functionality, and cultural adaptation—reflecting an ever-broadening scholarly horizon and an iterative evolution in research methodologies.

By systematically analyzing Chinese academic research on Korean Christianity, this study not only traces the scholarly trajectory of the field but also uncovers the distinctive theoretical perspectives and methodological patterns of Chinese religious studies. The comparative lens employed herein enables deeper reflection on the unique developmental path of religion in China and enhances our understanding of the mechanisms through which religion interacts with society—ultimately contributing to the innovation and refinement of China’s indigenous theoretical frameworks in religious studies. As an inherently interdisciplinary field, religious studies can benefit from the insights of international relations, area studies, and intercultural communication, among others.

One of the key theoretical contributions of Chinese scholars lies in their elucidation of how foreign religions undergo adaptive transformation within specific sociocultural environments. Through a systematic analysis of the localization of Korean Christianity, this study finds that successful indigenization depends not merely on doctrinal modifications but, more importantly, on deep resonance with local culture, national movements, and collective identity. However, the current literature remains methodologically limited by its overreliance on textual and historical analysis, with insufficient empirical and field-based research. This gap points to several future directions: first, adopting interdisciplinary approaches that integrate phenomenology, sociology, and anthropology to construct more holistic analytical frameworks; second, embracing empirical methodologies such as quantitative research, big data analysis, and participant observation to enhance the scientific rigor and empirical grounding of the field; and third, drawing from international theoretical models to move beyond descriptive accounts of localization and engage with the universal mechanisms of religious transmission.

Building on these insights, future research on the history of Korean Christianity should prioritize the following four areas: (1) increased focus on contemporary developments, including the spiritual practices of younger generations, digital evangelism trends, and responses to societal transformation; (2) deeper analysis of Korea’s global missionary strategies, transnational networks, and cultural influence; (3) broader application of religious phenomenology, anthropology, and psychology to facilitate micro-level and immersive studies of religious life; and (4) enhanced academic exchange with the international scholarly community, fostering theoretical innovation by Chinese scholars within global religious studies discourses.

This study’s theoretical significance lies in three key dimensions. First, it systematically charts the trajectory of Chinese academic inquiry into Korean Christian history, thereby deepening theoretical reflection on the construction of East Asian religious historiography. Second, by analyzing the mechanisms of religious localization from multiple perspectives, it offers valuable reference points for understanding cross-cultural religious transmission. Third, by identifying and addressing methodological limitations, it proposes new pathways for innovation in the study of religious history. Despite the study’s comprehensive scope, limitations remain regarding source selection, disciplinary diversity, and international engagement. Future research should aim to expand the empirical base, broaden interdisciplinary perspectives, and strengthen global scholarly dialogue—advancing the study of Korean Christianity in China to new academic heights.

In sum, through sustained theoretical reflection, methodological innovation, and academic dialogue, Chinese scholars have the potential to generate more profound and globally influential research on the history of Korean Christianity. Such work will enrich our understanding of the intricate interplay between religion, culture, and society, while providing robust theoretical resources for broader inquiries into the dynamics of religious change. As globalization deepens and regional integration accelerates, East Asian religious and cultural studies will face new opportunities and challenges. Comparative studies of Christianity in China and Korea—serving as a vital part of this field—are poised to make important contributions in theoretical innovation, methodological development, and international dialogue, thereby offering regional perspectives on global religious transformations and fostering intellectual exchange across East Asia.

The future trajectory of Chinese academic research on Korean Christianity will inevitably be shaped by various institutional, disciplinary, and societal factors. As the field evolves, maintaining its scholarly character will require continued emphasis on theoretical innovation, methodological rigor, and international academic dialogue. The sustainability of this research area depends on its ability to contribute meaningful insights to the broader understanding of religious transformation in East Asia while navigating the complex dynamics of contemporary research environments.