You are currently viewing a new version of our website. To view the old version click .
MDPIMDPI
Search all articles
Animals
Download PDF
  • Review
  • Open Access

3 January 2024

Assessment of Connective Tissue in the Equine Uterus and Cervix: Review of Clinical Impact and Staining Options

,
,
,
and
Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS–SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Animals2024, 14(1), 156;https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14010156
This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Equine Reproduction
Version Notes
Order Reprints

Simple Summary

Uterine diseases are the leading cause of infertility in mares, causing increasing costs and losses in horses’ breeding. Their current diagnosis is often supported by obtaining endometrial biopsies and hematoxylin–eosin staining, which is the basic staining used in histopathology. This review aims to show the variety of uterine changes affecting fertility and highlights the usefulness of special stains for connective tissue visualization—Masson trichrome, picrosirius red, elastica van Gieson, or periodic acid–Schiff—for a more comprehensive diagnosis. The fibrosis evaluation includes connective tissue changes in the cervix, the endometrium, and around/in the wall of blood vessels. Cervical connective tissue undergoes cyclic changes impacting fertility, whereas vascular changes, especially in multiparous mares, are crucial for adapting to physiological shifts, affecting early pregnancy and hindering placental development. Special stains are valuable for the identification of structural changes in the cervix and fibrosis in uterine blood vessels. Moreover, equine endometrosis, linked to fibrotic processes in the endometrium, emphasizes the need for wider use of special stains in diagnosis. Therefore, we advocate for special staining in reproductive tract evaluation due to its simplicity, accessibility, and effectiveness. We encourage scientists and diagnosticians to adopt additional tools for clearer pathology visualization, enabling reliable fertility predictions.

Abstract

Uterine diseases stand as the primary cause of infertility in mares; however, the diagnostic process often relies on obtaining endometrial biopsies and their hematoxylin–eosin staining. This review seeks to present the variability of uterine changes and their impact on fertility and underscore the utility of special stains, such as Masson trichrome, picrosirius red, elastica van Gieson, or periodic acid–Schiff, in enhancing diagnostic breadth. Connective tissue evaluation in the cervix is discussed, as it is subjected to cyclic changes and the impact on overall fertility. Vascular changes, particularly prevalent in multiparous mares, play a crucial role in adapting to physiological and pathological alterations, affecting early gestation and impeding placental development. Given that uterine vascular pathologies often involve fibrotic changes, connective tissue stains emerge as a valuable tool in this context. Moreover, equine endometriosis, predominantly associated with endometrial fibrosis, further highlights the relevance of special stains, suggesting their underutilization in the diagnostic process. Recognizing the subjective nature of diagnosing uterine pathologies and the need for additional diagnostic tools, we advocate for using dedicated stains in the histopathological evaluation of uterine samples. In conclusion, we encourage scientists and diagnosticians to embrace additional tools that enhance pathology visualization, enabling more reliable diagnoses concerning expected fertility.

1. Fibrosis Formation and Its Staining Possibilities in the Equine Uterus

Infertility is considered a major health problem in mares, as horses, among other domestic animals, have the lowest fertility rates, which is associated with their longevity and usage [1,2,3]. Age-related uterine diseases, such as endometritis, endometrosis, glandular differentiation disorders, and angiosis [3,4,5,6], are especially important, as improved management and care elongate lifespan, and many mares are bred only after successful sport or racing career [1,2]. Thus, especially in horses, a thorough and reliable diagnosis regarding fertility prognosis seems to be an important issue affecting the profitability of horse breeding. Sub- or infertility is causing economic losses in the equine industry and hampering efficient and effective breeding, as well as genotypic improvements among breeds [1,7].
Endometritis is associated with an altered uterine environment and infertility [2,3]. In the first 72 h after breeding, endometritis is the physiological inflammatory reaction in the endometrium [8,9,10]. If inflammation persists beyond this timeframe, for example, due to impaired uterine clearance, it converts into persistent endometritis, while an embryo dies [8,10,11]. On the other hand, the term “endometrosis”, initially introduced by Kenney [12,13] and modified by Schoon et al. [11], defines the active or inactive periglandular and/or stromal endometrial fibrosis, including glandular alterations within fibrotic foci and destructive or nondestructive changes in the glandular epithelium [14]. The major diagnostic features include the proportion of affected glands and the layers of collagen fibers enclosing a gland, inflammation, and reported infertility [4,15,16,17,18], which were proposed in the Kenney–Doig classification scheme for rating endometritis and endometrosis histological changes as absent (I), mild (IIA), moderate (IIB), or severe (III) [12]. In recent research on this chronic disease [5,12,14,19], the terms “degenerative endometrial fibrosis” [20] or “endometrial degeneration” [21] are used interchangeably. Regardless of the nomenclature, it involves periglandular fibrosis, altering the stromal structure and resulting in cystic glandular dilation [12,14,17,22]. Single-gland branched structures and/or multiple glands can be affected, with the latter often referred to as glandular nests or “nested endometrosis” [3]. In severe cases, multifocal–diffuse fibrosis may be observed [23]. The pathological alterations of the endometrial glands are associated with abnormal glandular function [14,24], which might contribute to estrous cycle dysregulation and early embryonic loss [25]. Endometrial fibrosis is often linked to concurrent endometritis [2,14,26]. Therefore, both are considered in the Kenney–Doig classification scheme and collectively impact the severity of histological changes in the equine endometrium as reversible and irreversible alterations [12,18,27]. While both may occur independently, endometrosis is considered a risk factor for endometritis, as local immunity mechanisms may not be sufficient, whether because of endometrial degeneration or age-associated changes [3,28]. Therefore, equine endometrosis is a common fertility-reducing disease of the equine endometrium [3], with the etiology and pathogenesis remaining unclear [3,14,28,29].
Glandular differentiation disorders may manifest during the breeding season as irregular glandular differentiation and unequal glandular differentiation [3,6,30]. The former can be present as irregular secretory, irregular proliferative, or complete irregular differentiation, while the latter is characterized by focal or multifocal groups of glands with asynchronous differentiation throughout the cycle [31,32]. In both cases, abnormal expression of hormone receptors [31,32,33], altered protein secretion [34], and disruption of the basement membrane of glandular epithelial cells have been observed [32]. However, no periglandular fibrosis was noted in these cases [3].
Finally, angiosis is a common angiopathy which occurs in the equine endometrium [35]. In recent research on this degenerative disease, the term “angiosclerosis” has been used interchangeably [35]. Angiosis does not encompass all abnormalities of blood vessels. In contrast to less common inflammatory lesions like perivasculitis and vasculitis, angiosis is characterized by an augmented deposition of connective tissue and/or elastic fibers within the wall of endometrial vessels [35,36,37].
It is evident that two out of the four primary endometrial diseases, which are the main causes of sub- and infertility [3,15,17,18,35,37,38,39,40], are associated with the formation of fibrosis and thus the deposition of connective tissue in the equine endometrium. The histopathological examination of endometrial biopsy or full-thickness sections remains indispensable in assessing the alterations in the uterine wall structure [3,13,39,40]; hematoxylin and eosin (HE) is a routinely used staining method to visualize tissue morphology. The HE stain is commonly used to assess connective tissue fibers as well, besides the availability of well-established histochemical methods for the visualization of connective tissue and fibrosis [1,5,41,42,43,44,45,46,47]. As the HE is not specific to connective tissue, the use of special stains is potentially beneficial, especially for the quantitative assessment of fibrosis. Although the histological-specific staining methods are inexpensive, easy to perform, and informative, the usability of specific connective tissue stains in endometrium assessment is often questioned, and despite recurrent use in research, its application in routine clinical diagnosis is rather limited [3,5,15,22,27,35,43,48]. In research, sometimes only the application of special staining is mentioned, suggesting that the purpose is to facilitate fibrosis assessment [22,48,49]. Among the specific staining for connective tissue, Masson trichrome staining (MT) [43,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57], picrosirius red staining (PSR) [15,18,35,58,59,60], Gomori trichrome staining (GT) [61,62], elastica van Gieson staining (EVG) [4,63,64], Azan staining [65], resorcin–fuchsin staining (RF) [65], periodic acid–Schiff staining (PAS) [4,52,65,66], and, in highly specific way, IHC [6,16,51,60,67], may be utilized for enhancing the histological visualization of connective tissue in light microscopy. Although electron microscopy is a more expensive technique, it may be employed for the evaluation of smaller structures in ECM or cellular degeneration in fibrosis studies; thus, methylene-blue-azur2-basic fuchsin staining (MBABF) on semi-thin slices for area selection [35], uranyl acetate–lead citrate staining (UALC) [4,35,64], and gold-coating [64,66] can be used. While some claim that specific staining does not provide any additional value to the breeding soundness exam [15,43], assessing the scale and severity of fibrosis is considered more reliable when a special stain is used. Moreover, in scientific research on the assessment of connective tissue in the endometrium, the specific staining for fibers is widely used and recommended [45,46,47,68,69,70,71]. This review serves to systematically summarize the usefulness of methods of connective tissue staining in the equine uterus, which make the diagnosis of endometrial and cervical diseases more accurate. The accurate diagnosis, which is the result of cooperation between clinicians and diagnosticians, enables owners to make informed decisions about further breeding, taking into consideration not only the numeric categorization of endometrial biopsy but also the qualitative and quantitative assessment of each individual case [1,72].
This review aims to discuss methods for connective tissue staining in the uterus and cervix, as well as their role in the assessment of diseases associated with fibrosis in the context of the mares’ fertility.

2. Measurement and Influence of Fibrotic Processes

This critical review is based on a search of articles in English in PubMed http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed (accessed on 30 October 2023) and Scopus https://www.scopus.com/home (accessed on 30 October 2023) using the terms “connective tissue, collagen, fibrosis” combined with localization, i.e., uterus, uterine, endometrium; and species, i.e., mare, equine, since 1986, the year of introduction of endometrium grading method [12]. Libraries were screened to the consecutive page after the last relevant record. Duplicates have been removed. Title and abstract databases of the obtained articles were created, and manuscripts referring to the connective tissue evaluation in a uterus were studied in detail. Studies in which the HE stain was used only for the Kenney–Doig category, without evaluation of fibrosis or its impact on fertility, were not investigated thoroughly. We also did not investigate research on endometrosis pathogenesis, as this area is rapidly developing, and several remarkable review articles have been published recently.

2.1. Assessment of Cervical Functionality

Understanding of cervical cyclic changes may be broadened with histological examination, including specific staining for connective tissue. All research conducted on connective tissue in the equine cervix has investigated the full-thickness post-mortem sections [50,51,65]. A cervical biopsy has the potential to disrupt its structure, causing permanent damage and, consequently, infertility. Therefore, this procedure is not routinely performed, and any manipulation of the cervix outside of estrus is conducted with utmost care [73]. The cervical contraction–relaxation process is dependent on the functioning of active structures (smooth muscle cells) as well as passive structures (connective tissue in the muscular and mucosal layers of the cervical wall). Although the cervix has a lower number of steroid hormones receptors, it is still influenced by the ovarian cycle [33,74]. Hydration of connective tissue increases in the reproductive tract during the follicular phase, which can be seen as edema [3,17,75]. Therefore, an increase in the area covered by connective tissue in histological specimens is more closely associated with connective tissue hydration rather than increased connective tissue synthesis [18]. Reports on the assessment of the connective tissue in the equine cervix are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Histological assessment of the structure and function of the cervix.
HE was performed in almost all cervical connective tissue studies [50,65,73]. Thanks to this, the structure of the cervical wall and cell morphology were assessed both in the normal cervix [65,73] as well as in the case of cervicitis [73]. Among the specific staining for connective tissue in the equine cervix, PAS, Azan staining, RF [65], and MT [50,51] were used. The first three stains allowed for visualization of ciliated cells in luminal epithelium and vascularization in the deep lamina propria of mucosae [65], whereas the last was used to assess the cyclic changes in connective tissue in the cervical mucosal and muscular layers [50,51]. During the follicular phase, the share of connective tissue in the tunica mucosa increased, primarily due to the formation of more folds during this phase. No differences were found in the muscular layer, suggesting that it is less susceptible to cyclic changes. There were no differences in the width or number of cell layers between the follicular and luteal phases, indicating that functional changes in the cervix may be primarily dependent on the functioning of the mucosal layer (conference report, unpublished findings) [50].
A higher content of connective tissue was observed in diestrus than in estrus [51], which, however, does not allow us to distinguish whether it was due to increased hydration or synthesis [18]. On the other hand, no cyclic changes were found in luminal epithelium, or in vascular density within the tunica mucosa and tunica muscularis [65]. In a study by Campbell et al. [51], the cervical expression of the estrogen receptor α gene was investigated, and higher values in both the luminal epithelium and stroma were reported during estrus than diestrus [51]. While a measurable estrogen influence is observed in the cervical stroma [3,75,76], the effects of increased estrogen levels in estrus on epithelial cells require further research.
Interestingly, the presence of a hypothetical venous plexus in the cervix may be a subject of future research, especially concerning endometrial vascular changes in multiparous mares, as described in more detail in Section 2.2 [4,35,65].

2.2. Assessment of Vascular Changes

Functional changes in the pregnant uterus involve alterations in blood supply and uterine blood vessels, leading to angioses [4,6,36,37,59,77]. The incidence and severity of these structural changes in the blood vessel walls increase with age and the number of foalings [12,78,79,80]. Angioses are frequently observed as co-occurring with endometrosis [4,37,46], so fibrosis occurs simultaneously in more than one endometrial structure. While the consequences of both types of fibrotic changes are not fully understood [3,6,18,28,29], they should be considered when assessing endometrial specimens.
Angioses may also reduce the adaptive capacity of vascularization to respond to alterations in uterine blood demand in specific situations [59,77]. The biggest challenge for uterine vascularization is gestation. In the initial stage, when an embryo is still migrating through the uterine lumen, the blood flow in an altered vesselis less associated with the position of the embryonic vesicle [77]. Vascular fibrosis results in a lower density of chorionic villi in the placenta, possibly leading to poorer fetal nutrition [37,59,77]. Additionally, a decrease in uterine blood supply may exacerbate placental development insufficiency. On the other hand, multiparous mares tend to develop heavier placentas, resulting in higher foal mass [77]. Thus, it may be suspected that foal mass at birth initially increases with parity, but at some point, it starts to decrease as vascular changes progress. While it has not been studied in horses, results from other species suggest that occlusion in uterine blood flow results in decreased uterine contractility [59,81]. This aspect may suggest the role of angioses in delayed uterine clearance and intrauterine fluid accumulation, thus influencing susceptibility [3,74]. Similarly, functional adaptation of blood supply is impaired during the estrus cycle. Angioses diminish the overall uterine perfusion, as well as variability in particular anatomical regions, especially in uterine horns, a region with the physiologically highest perfusion [59,77]. Additionally, uterine angioses are associated with reduced ovarian blood supply, which, in turn, leads to decreased hormonal signaling—a crucial factor in the regulation of the seasonal estrous cycle [37]. The influence of angioses suggests a potential deficiency in vascular adaptation during inflammatory processes. Given that the effectiveness and duration of inflammation depend on increased blood flow and rapid neutrophil infiltration, in both infectious and breeding-induced endometritis, it can be hypothesized that angiosis may also prolong or disrupt the healing process, despite the lack of scientific data [81,82]. To facilitate the assessment of histological results, reports on the assessment of the perivascular connective tissue in the equine endometrium are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Histological assessment of uterine vascular changes.
HE was utilized for the vascular assessment in both biopsy [27,35,40,58,63,77] and full-thickness specimens [4,53,54,55,58,63]. This basic staining was sufficient to evidence that incidence and degree of angiosis increase with mare age [40] with no effect on the uterine blood flow increase in the gestation [77]. Moreover, angioses in arteries result in increased vascular resistance; the reduction of uterine blood supply in pregnancy was not observed [77]. On the other hand, degeneration of veins may lead to blood stasis, hindering the lymphatic drainage and evacuation of intrauterine fluid and potentially exposing the mare to persistent endometritis [4,36,77]. However, again, there were no such observations during pregnancy [77].
Among the specific staining for connective tissue in the case of equine endometrial angiosis, PSR [27,35,58], EVG [4,63], PAS [4], and MT [53,54,55] were utilized. Of them, PSR was recommended as an excellent method for a concise characterization of vascular alterations [59,80]. PSR (light microscopy), MBABF, and UALC (electron microscopy) allowed for correlating the age and parity of a mare with the incidence and degree of angiosis [35]. EVG, PAS (light microscopy), and UALC (electron microscopy) were used in a study demonstrating that incidence and severity begin after the mare’s sixth year of life [4]. The last one was used for the separation of collagen fibers encircling the vessel from the rest of the connective tissue, making intramural connective tissue fibers distinguishable within the vessel wall [53,54,55].
In a preliminary study, angioses associated with endometrosis and endometritis were assessed (conference reports, unpublished findings) [53,54,55]. It was observed that the average vessel wall width in endometritis was significantly reduced in fibrotic samples, which may suggest stretching of the wall caused by blood stasis. On the other hand, the average vessel lumen area was also smaller in endometrosis, likely linked to decreased perfusion [53]. Concerning endometrial biopsies categories, perivascular fibrosis was higher in category III than I, with no differences between them and categories IIA and IIB [54]. It may suggest that angioses, evidenced by perivascular fibrosis, thickened walls of vessels, and increased vessel lumen area, occur more often at the end of the fibrotic degeneration process. The area of perivascular fibrosis was also evaluated in relation to the hyaluronan synthases (HAS) 1, 2, and 3 expressions, showing that perivascular fibrosis may be mediated by HAS 1 and 3 but only in more severe endometrosis [55].
Although angioses are mostly found in multiparous mares, mild changes are also observed in maiden mares [3,36,59,77]. While their uterine vessels were not subjected to deep remodeling during pregnancy, they were still subjected to cyclic and inflammatory vascular changes [3,36,77,82]. Thus, it can be hypothesized that the capability of withstanding continuous adaptations of blood vessels is limited, and the frequency and severity of functional events hasten their loss of functionality. However, individual variability in this feature is significant, as demonstrated by old, multiparous, and still-fertile mares [3,4,22,40,77] with marked vascular changes, while glands remain functional [3,4,40].

2.3. Assessment of Endometrial Changes

Although conventional HE is mostly used for histological diagnosis, specific staining for connective tissue appears to be underappreciated in the context of endometrosis, with some suggesting that it does not provide additional value to HE stain [4,15,16,18,43,44]. In contrast, Grüninger et al. stated that MT is widely used for detecting endometrial fibrosis [15]. Interestingly, in some scientific studies, mostly MT [16,22,43,52,56,57] and PSR [15,18,60] were utilized to stain collagen fibers, while EVG [4,64], PAS [4,52,66], Alcian blue (AB) staining [16,52], immunohistochemical (IHC) staining [6,16,60,67] (light microscopy), UALC [4,64], and gold sputter (GS) coating [66] (electron microscopy) were used for other specific assessments of other ECM components co-occurring alterations. Such a wide use of specific staining in the scientific research indicates that for diagnostic purposes, connective tissue staining would be beneficial. It is worth noting that some studies on connective tissue quantification in relation to the clinical outcome and the expected fertility in the case of endometrosis were already presented [5,15].
Visualization of collagen fibers may allow for a better assessment of the density of the connective tissue surrounding endometrial glands. Increased density can be responsible for the impaired transport of nutrients and endocrine signaling molecules from blood vessels to the glandular epithelium; thus, it may cause degeneration and loss of function [83,84]. The specific staining methods offer superior contrast between collagen fibers and glands. Moreover, specific staining may support the distinction between endometrosis and glandular differentiation disorders [5,38,72]. While specific staining has been discussed in relation to periglandular or stromal fibrosis, there is a lack of data regarding the visualization of destructive or nondestructive changes in glandular epithelium. To facilitate the assessment of histopathological results, reports on the assessment of the connective tissue in the equine endometrosis were summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Histological assessment of endometrial changes and their impact on fertility.
Recent preliminary work presented the differences in cytoplasmic staining of glandular epithelium (conference reports, unpublished findings) [56,57]. All samples were stained with HE and assessed in a standard manner, while MT-stained slides were examined using both light microscopy and a scanning cytometer. Initially, lighter cytoplasm was observed in glandular epithelium with destructive changes, while darker cytoplasm was supported with nondestructive glandular epithelium [56]. Fibrotic areas around glands were found to be larger when cytoplasm was marked as light, and no differences were found around glands with dark cytoplasm, suspected to be functional [56]. The occurrence of glands with light cytoplasm was higher in endometrosis than in healthy endometrium [57]. However, further research is needed to evidence whether areas of glands with lighter cytoplasm are related to clinical outcome or fertility prognosis [56,57].

3. Comparison of Staining Methods of the Connective Tissue

In previous studies, several methods for connective tissue evaluation were employed. As they use various stains, differently binding connective tissue compounds each provide a specific value; however, each is also associated with some limitations or flaws [85,86]. Thus, staining selection should be directly related to the aim of the study and the possibility of evaluation. HE is globally used for the evaluation of cell morphology and tissue architecture [45]. It is commonly used to diagnose any histological alterations in a tissue, including fibrosis in endometrial samples, although it is not a specific stain for the connective tissue [68,69,87,88]. This implies that the ECM evaluation in HE-stained slides may be biased and result in higher variability in the observer impact [47,71]. Some researchers claim that reticular fibers are not stained in HE, collagen fibers may not be differentiable, and special stains may replace the use of advanced techniques [45,46,68,69,70]. Conversely, some studies showed a lack of benefits coming from using special stains, apart from HE [43,71]. Regarding stains dedicated to connective tissue, MT and PSR are considered relatively easy, fast, and inexpensive stains with high throughput, making them usable in a standard diagnostic process [85,86,89,90,91]. As GT uses a single stain for ECM, it is also easy to perform [47,92]. On the other hand, along with EVG (for elastic fibers), RF, and Azan staining, GT is variable in the differentiation stage, causing equal staining intensity to be harder to achieve [86,89,92,93]. Azan and RF are also time-consuming [93,94].
While MT stains ECM collectively (smaller collagen fibers may not be stained, causing an underestimation of collagen content [88,89]), RF and EVG stains (EVG stains collagen fibers, although fairly) can be used for the visualization of elastic fibers in tissue, while Azan staining helps in the distinction between collagen and reticulin fibers [68,86,95]. In PSR, a possible differentiation in the size of fibers is discussed, while along with MT, it can be also used to evaluate collagen bundle orientation [46,86,89,90]. However, for the most accurate results in collagen birefringence-enhancing PSR, a circularly polarized microscopy should be used [89,90]. MT and PSR stains are characterized by high contrast, which makes them useful in morphometry, microdensitometry, and automatized approaches, but only in colorimetric assessment, as achieved color does not differ considerably in greyscale [86,88,96,97,98]. For basal membrane visualization, Azan or PAS can be used [68,86,94]. Additionally, the Alcian blue stain in varying pH can be used singularly or along with PAS to visualize mucopolysaccharides, as it is specific to carbohydrates and also those bound with proteins [86,92].
The MBABF provides high contrast between cells and ECM, although it is used in specially fixed, epoxy-embedded samples. It is used for the selection of areas of interest for electron microscopy [99,100]. Then, smaller samples are stained with UALC, which non-specifically binds with cellular structures, increases electron density, and thus improves contrast in transmission electron microscopy [87,94,101]. While it is especially useful in cellular structures and degeneration assessment, it is not informative regarding tissue. While most stains include toxic compounds, UALC should be used especially safely [101,102]. An improvement in image quality in scanning electron microscopy can be achieved with gold coating, e.g., with gold sputter coating (GS) [103,104]. While it prevents some artifacts, the scanned surface may appear granular. However, this effect may be reduced with palladium addition [104].
The highest specificity of staining can be achieved using the IHC method, as a selected marker is stained with a specific antibody. It allows for highly valuable quantitative analysis, as well as exact antigen localization in the cell and tissue [86,87,105]. Multiple antigens can be visualized in immunostaining when different chromogens or fluorochromes are used [106]. On the other hand, especially in horses, antibodies of proven specificity may not be available and antibody development is expensive, increasing already high costs [87,107]. Tissue processing and antibody binding specificity should undergo an optimization process to achieve the best results. Also, to prove staining specificity, positive and negative controls should be encompassed in the study [87]. Despite the evident value provided by IHC, light microscopy is still a dominant tool in histological specimen evaluation [45]. The properties of stains used in studies concerning connective tissue in the equine cervix, endometrial stroma, and blood vessels are summarized in Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3, as well as compared in Table 4.
Table 4. Comparison of staining methods employed for the histological assessment of the connective tissue previously.

4. Discussion

It appears that all uterine diseases should be collectively considered in the assessment of expected fertility. Uterine diseases may not occur singularly, which influences their impact on fertility. Conversely, the impact of a similar microscopic picture may vary among individuals, depending on baseline capabilities and adaptability, as overall results depend on a plethora of biological processes and factors [1,6,18,37,116]. Although the co-occurrence of histopathological changes was described in a large sample group, the study was retrospective, and its impact on fertility prognosis was not fully evaluated [72]. Therefore, also in the course of equine endometrosis, the diagnostic description should include more thorough information than just the numerical categorization. Since the first guidelines for the assessment of endometrial changes many studies have been conducted [3,5,28,38], more descriptive results would improve communication between diagnosticians and clinicians, leading to a more accurate diagnosis and decision regarding fertility [5,39]. Only a comprehensive view of both histopathologic and clinical evaluations allows for a reliable assessment of fertility status. On the other hand, a broader description of the reproductive status from which the biopsy was taken would facilitate a more accurate microscopic assessment [1].
While the inadequacy of the Kenney–Doig classification has been previously discussed, this is another report regarding the need for a broader perspective in fertility estimation [1,5,6,37,39]. Although endometrial biopsy is considered the gold standard for diagnosing uterine diseases, there is no gold standard for qualitative evaluation of clinical outcomes and quantification of endometrial fibrosis. The Kenney–Doig categories assigned to the endometrial sample depend clearly on present alterations, but an observer influence was also found, especially since there is no uniform training for assessment and it depends on subjective observations [1,37,117]. Interestingly, two intermediate categories (IIA and IIB) are most frequently found, regardless of age-based division. It is possibly associated with hesitation in classifying the endometrium into extreme categories, describing it as either healthy or hardly able to maintain a pregnancy. In particular, samples varying in the severity of changes along the microscopic slide pose challenges in assessment and classification [1,39,117]. Westendorf et al. (2022) found that one in ten samples evaluated by eight pathologists was classified in all available categories, while even more were assigned to categories I and III by at least two diagnosticians [117]. This general inter- and intra-rater agreement of classification was lower than usually expected in histopathology grading systems. Such inconsistency raises concerns about the reliability of endometrial grading and its repeatability. Thus, despite being considered standardized, the Kenney–Doig classification is subjective and depends on the experience of the pathologist, as well as sampling and tissue characteristics [1,117]. As morphometrics is considered a valuable addition to biopsy assessment, specific staining for connective tissue evaluation may be used for easier differentiation between endometrial compounds, as well as accurate counting of collagen layers encircling a gland [5]. Even if periglandular fibrosis is not the only important alteration in the endometrium, specific staining may help in the detection and quantification of destructive changes in the glandular epithelium [56] and angioses [4,27,35,53,54,55,58,63].
While the benefits from the use of specific staining have clearly been demonstrated, we encourage scientists and diagnosticians to employ any additional tool to improve the visualization of histopathological changes and allow for a more reliable diagnosis regarding expected fertility. As a perspective for further research, the role of microRNAs in the pathogenesis of endometrosis is studied with next-generation sequencing (NGS) [118]. At the same time, blood markers of endometrial fibrosis [23,119], such as collagen type III, have already been investigated. Although it can be suspected that their development and implementation in clinical usage will not occur rapidly, more accessible methods should currently be employed in routine diagnosis. However, regardless of the development and employment of novel and more advanced techniques, light microscopy remains an essential tool in diagnosis and research, complementing newer methods [45]. Especially in the context of endometrosis, in which the main change is increased collagen content, the fact that HE is often the only stain used for biopsy is slightly incomprehensible. MT may be helpful in the connective tissue evaluation and quantification both in the cervical and uterine mucous membrane stroma as well as in the blood vessel wall.

5. Conclusions

Several methods for connective tissue staining in mares’ uterus and cervix are available. Among them, MT and PSR stains provide high contrast of staining, useful for quantitative fibrosis evaluation; GT is simple, yet highly reliable; EVG differentiates types of connective tissue fibers; and PAS effectively stains basal membranes and neutral mucins. Therefore, regarding assessment of the connective tissue and fibrosis, each of them represents benefits over conventional HE, although selection should be made based on the purpose and aim of a study or diagnosis. The clinical impact of the use of specific staining includes improved visualization of the connective tissue, which may enhance the accurate assessment of fibrosis-related diseases of the equine endometrium. However, their use in the quantification of endometrial fibrosis requires further research linked with the qualitative evaluation of clinical outcomes and fertility.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Ł.Z. and M.D.; writing—original draft preparation, Ł.Z., K.S., T.J. and M.D.; writing—review and editing, Ł.Z., B.P., K.S., T.J. and M.D.; supervision, B.P.; project administration, M.D.; funding acquisition, Ł.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The study was supported by the National Science Centre, Poland, “PRELUDIUM-20” Project, No. 2021/41/N/NZ5/04384.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Westendorf, J.; Wobeser, B.; Epp, T. IIB or Not IIB, Part 1: Retrospective Evaluation of Kenney–Doig Categorization of Equine Endometrial Biopsies at a Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory and Comparison with Published Reports. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2022, 34, 206–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Woodward, E.M.; Christoffersen, M.; Campos, J.; Squires, E.L.; Troedsson, M.H.T. Susceptibility to Persistent Breeding-Induced Endometritis in the Mare: Relationship to Endometrial Biopsy Score and Age, and Variations between Seasons. Theriogenology 2012, 78, 495–501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Schöniger, S.; Schoon, H.-A. The Healthy and Diseased Equine Endometrium: A Review of Morphological Features and Molecular Analyses. Animals 2020, 10, 625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Hanada, M.; Maeda, Y.; Oikawa, M. Histopathological Characteristics of Endometrosis in Thoroughbred Mares in Japan: Results from 50 Necropsy Cases. J. Equine Sci. 2014, 25, 45–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Snider, T.A.; Sepoy, C.; Holyoak, G.R. Equine Endometrial Biopsy Reviewed: Observation, Interpretation, and Application of Histopathologic Data. Theriogenology 2011, 75, 1567–1581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Kilgenstein, H.J.; Schöniger, S.; Schoon, D.; Schoon, H.-A. Microscopic Examination of Endometrial Biopsies of Retired Sports Mares: An Explanation for the Clinically Observed Subfertility? Res. Vet. Sci. 2015, 99, 171–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Mahon, G.A.T.; Cunningham, E.P. Inbreeding and the Inheritance of Fertility in the Thoroughbred Mare. Livest. Prod. Sci. 1982, 9, 743–754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Troedsson, M.H.T. Uterine Clearance and Resistance to Persistent Endometritis in the Mare. Theriogenology 1999, 52, 461–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Schoon, H.-A.; Schoon, D.; Klug, E. Die Endometriumbiopsie bei der Stute im klinisch-gynäkologischen Kontext. Pferdeheilkunde 1997, 13, 453–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Katila, T. Onset and duration of uterine inflammatory response of mares after insemination with fresh semen. Biol. Reprod. 1995, 1, 515–517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Schoon, H.-A.; Schoon, D.; Klug, E. Uterusbiopsien als Hilfsmittel für Diagnose und Prognose von Fertilitätsstörungen der Stute. Pferdeheilkunde 1992, 8, 355–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Kenney, R.M.; Doig, P.A. Equine endometrial biopsy. In Current Therapy in Theriogenology, 2nd ed.; Morrow, D.A., Ed.; WB Saunders: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1986; pp. 723–729. [Google Scholar]
  13. Kenney, R.M. Chronic Degenerative Endometritis (CDE)(Endometrosis). Equine Vet. J. 1993, 25, 184–193. [Google Scholar]
  14. Hoffmann, C.; Ellenberger, C.; Mattos, R.C.; Aupperle, H.; Dhein, S.; Stief, B.; Schoon, H.-A. The Equine Endometrosis: New Insights into the Pathogenesis. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 2009, 111, 261–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Evans, T.J.; Miller, M.A.; Ganjam, V.K.; Niswender, K.D.; Ellersieck, M.R.; Krause, W.J.; Youngquist, R.S. Morphometric Analysis of Endometrial Periglandular Fibrosis in Mares. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1998, 59, 1209–1214. [Google Scholar]
  16. Rojas, D.; Cabezas, J.; Ramírez, G.; Saraiva, F.; Lleretny, R.-A.; Castro, F.O. Complimentary Diagnostic Tools for Endometrosis in Biopsies of Mares with Clinical Subfertility. Acta Sci. Vet. 2020, 48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Kenney, R.M. Cyclic and Pathologic Changes of the Mare Endometrium as Detected by Biopsy, with a Note on Early Embryonic Death. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1978, 172, 241–262. [Google Scholar]
  18. Oddsdóttir, C. Development of Endometrial Fibrosis in the Mare: Factors Involved in Tissue Remodelling and Collagen Deposition. 2007. Available online: http://hdl.handle.net/1842/4218 (accessed on 30 October 2023).
  19. Hoffmann, C.; Bazer, F.W.; Klug, J.; Aupperle, H.; Ellenberger, C.; Schoon, H.-A. Immunohistochemical and Histochemical Identification of Proteins and Carbohydrates in the Equine Endometrium: Expression Patterns for Mares Suffering from Endometrosis. Theriogenology 2009, 71, 264–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Jasiński, T.; Zdrojkowski, Ł.; Kautz, E.; Juszczuk-Kubiak, E.; Ferreira-Dias, G.; Domino, M. Equine Endometrosis Pathological Features: Are They Dependent on NF-κB Signaling Pathway? Animals 2021, 11, 3151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Muderspach, N.D.; Troedsson, M.H.; Ferreira-Dias, G.; Agerholm, J.S.; Christoffersen, M. Distribution of Degenerative Changes in the Equine Endometrium as Observed in a Single versus Two Biopsies. Theriogenology 2024, 213, 52–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Flores, J.; Rodríguez, A.; Sánchez, J.; Gómez-Cuétara, C.; Ramiro, F. Endometrosis in Mares: Incidence of Histopathological Alterations. Reprod. Domest. Anim. 1995, 30, 61–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Alpoim-Moreira, J.; Fernandes, C.; Rebordão, M.R.; Costa, A.L.; Bliebernicht, M.; Nunes, T.; Szóstek-Mioduchowska, A.; Skarzynski, D.J.; Ferreira-Dias, G. Collagen Type III as a Possible Blood Biomarker of Fibrosis in Equine Endometrium. Animals 2022, 12, 1854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Gerstenberg, C.; Allen, W.R.; Stewart, F. Cell Proliferation Patterns during Development of the Equine Placenta. Reproduction 1999, 117, 143–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
  25. Amaral, A.; Fernandes, C.; Lukasik, K.; Szóstek-Mioduchowska, A.; Baclawska, A.; Rebordão, M.R.; Aguiar-Silva, J.; Pinto-Bravo, P.; Skarzynski, D.J.; Ferreira-Dias, G. Elastase inhibition affects collagen transcription and prostaglandin secretion in mare endometrium during the estrous cycle. Reprod. Domest. Anim. 2018, 53, 66–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Reilas, T.; Rivera del Alamo, M.M.; Liepina, E.; Yeste, M.; Katila, T. Effects on the Equine Endometrium of Cervical Occlusion after Insemination. Theriogenology 2016, 85, 617–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Kabisch, J.; Klose, K.; Schoon, H.-A. Endometrial Biopsies of Old Mares—What to Expect?! Pferdeheilkunde 2019, 35, 211–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Katila, T.; Ferreira-Dias, G. Evolution of the Concepts of Endometrosis, Post Breeding Endometritis, and Susceptibility of Mares. Animals 2022, 12, 779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Szóstek-Mioduchowska, A.Z.; Lukasik, K.; Skarzynski, D.J.; Okuda, K. Effect of Transforming Growth Factor -Β1 on α-Smooth Muscle Actin and Collagen Expression in Equine Endometrial Fibroblasts. Theriogenology 2019, 124, 9–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Bischofberger, L.; Szewczyk, K.; Schoon, H.-A. Unequal Glandular Differentiation of the Equine Endometrium—A Separate Endometrial Alteration. Pferdeheilkunde 2019, 35, 304–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Schoon, H.-A.; Schoon, D.; Wiegandt, I.; Bartmann, C.-P.; Aupperle, H. “Endometrial maldifferentiation”—A clinically significant diagnosis in equine reproduction? Pferdeheilkunde 1999, 15, 555–559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
  32. Schoon, H.-A.; Wiegandt, I.; Schoon, D.; Aupperle, H.; Bartmann, C.-P. Functional disturbances in the endometrium of barren mares: A histological and immunohistological study. J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. 2000, 56, 381–391. [Google Scholar]
  33. Re, G.; Badino, P.; Novelli, A.; Di Renzo, G.F.; Severino, L.; De Liguoro, M.; Ferone, M.R. Distribution of Cytosolic Oestrogen and Progesterone Receptors in the Genital Tract of the Mare. Res. Vet. Sci. 1995, 59, 214–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Ellenberger, C.; Bartmann, C.-P.; Klug, E.; Hoppen, H.-O.; Hoffmann, C.; Bazer, F.W.; Klug, J.; Allen, W.R.; Schoon, D.; Schoon, H.-A. Immunohistochemical characterization of equine endometrial maldifferentiation with special emphasis on uterine secretory proteins. In Havemeyer Foundation Monograph Series No. 14, Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Equine Embryo Transfer, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 4–6 August 2004; Alvarenga, M., Wade, J.F., Eds.; R & W Communications: Newmarket, UK, 2005; pp. 13–15. [Google Scholar]
  35. Grüninger, B.; Schoon, H.-A.; Schoon, D.; Menger, S.; Klug, E. Incidence and Morphology of Endometrial Angiopathies in Mares in Relationship to Age and Parity. J. Comp. Pathol. 1998, 119, 293–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Schoon, D.; Schoon, H.A.; Klug, E. Angioses in the Equine Endometrium-Pathogenesis and Clinical Correlations. Pferdeheilkunde 1999, 15, 541–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Schoon, H.A.; Schoon, D. The Category I Mare (Kenney and Doig)-Expected Foaling Rate 80–90%-Fact or Fiction? Pferdeheilkunde 2003, 19, 698–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Lehmann, J.; Ellenberger, C.; Hoffmann, C.; Bazer, F.W.; Klug, J.; Allen, W.R.; Sieme, H.; Schoon, H.-A. Morpho-Functional Studies Regarding the Fertility Prognosis of Mares Suffering from Equine Endometrosis. Theriogenology 2011, 76, 1326–1336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Schlafer, D.H. Equine Endometrial Biopsy: Enhancement of Clinical Value by More Extensive Histopathology and Application of New Diagnostic Techniques? Theriogenology 2007, 68, 413–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Ebert, A.; Schoon, D.; Schoon, H.A. Age-related endometrial alterations in mares-biopsy findings of the last 20 years. In Leipziger Blaue Hefte, 7th Leipzig Veterinary Congress, 8th International Conference on Equine Reproductive Medicine; Rackwitz, R., Pees, M., Aschenbach, J.R., Gäbel, G., Eds.; Lehmanns Media GmbH: Berlin, Germany, 2014; Volume 2, pp. 230–232. [Google Scholar]
  41. Christoffersen, M.; Woodward, E.M.; Bojesen, A.M.; Petersen, M.R.; Squires, E.L.; Lehn-Jensen, H.; Troedsson, M.H.T. Effect of Immunomodulatory Therapy on the Endometrial Inflammatory Response to Induced Infectious Endometritis in Susceptible Mares. Theriogenology 2012, 78, 991–1004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Rua, M.A.S.; Quirino, C.R.; Ribeiro, R.B.; Carvalho, E.C.Q.; Bernadino, M.d.L.A.; Bartholazzi Junior, A.; Cipagalta, L.F.; Barreto, M.A.P. Diagnostic Methods to Detect Uterus Illnesses in Mares. Theriogenology 2018, 114, 285–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Blanchard, T.L.; Garcia, M.C.; Kintner, L.D.; Kenney, R.M. Investigation of the Representativeness of a Single Endometrial Sample and the Use of Trichrome Staining to Aid in the Detection of Endometrial Fibrosis in the Mare. Theriogenology 1987, 28, 445–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Overbeck, W.; Jäger, K.; Schoon, H.-A.; Witte, T.S. Comparison of Cytological and Histological Examinations in Different Locations of the Equine Uterus—An in Vitro Study. Theriogenology 2013, 79, 1262–1268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Musumeci, G. Past, Present and Future: Overview on Histology and Histopathology. Histol. Histopathol. 2014, 1, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Rich, L.; Whittaker, P. Collagen and Picrosirius Red Staining: A Polarized Light Assessment of Fibrillar Hue and Spatial Distribution. J. Morphol. Sci. 2017, 22, 97–104. [Google Scholar]
  47. Tretheway, D.; Jain, A.; LaPoint, R.; Sharma, R.; Orloff, M.; Milot, P.; Bozorgzadeh, A.; Ryan, C. Should Trichrome Stain Be Used on All Post–Liver Transplant Biopsies with Hepatitis c Virus Infection to Estimate the Fibrosis Score? Liver Transplant. 2008, 14, 695–700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Hirsbrunner, G.; Reist, M.; Couto, S.S.; Steiner, A.; Snyder, J.; van Leeuwen, E.; Liu, I. An in Vitro Study on Spontaneous Myometrial Contractility in the Mare during Estrus and Diestrus. Theriogenology 2006, 65, 517–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Aresu, L.; Benali, S.; Giannuzzi, D.; Mantovani, R.; Castagnaro, M.; Falomo, M.E. The Role of Inflammation and Matrix Metalloproteinases in Equine Endometrosis. J. Vet. Sci. 2012, 13, 171–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Skierbiszewska, K.; Domino, M.; Olszewski, J.; Masko, M.; Zabielski, R.; Matyba, P.; Wehrend, A.; Gajewski, Z. The content of collagen in the equine cervix during estrus cycle. In Proceedings of the 21st Annual Conference of the European Society for Domestic Animal Reproduction (ESDAR), Bern, Switzerland, 24 August 2017; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2017; pp. 135–136. [Google Scholar]
  51. Campbell, M.L.H.; Peachey, L.E.; Callan, L.; Wathes, D.C.; De Mestre, A.M. Expression of Oestrogen Receptor α Is Negatively Correlated With Collagen Density in the Mare’s Cervix. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018, 66, 100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Crociati, M.; Capomaccio, S.; Mandara, M.T.; Stradaioli, G.; Sylla, L.; Monaci, M.; Cappelli, K. Different Expression of Defensin-B Gene in the Endometrium of Mares of Different Age during the Breeding Season. BMC Vet. Res. 2019, 15, 465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Zdrojkowski, L.; Domino, M.; Piecuch, A.; Wojcicka, A.; Olszewski, J.; Masko, M.; Gajewski, Z. Histometry of vascular changes in endometrosis and endometritis using Masson’s trichrome staining. In Proceedings of the 24th Annual Conference of the European Society for Domestic Animal Reproduction (ESDAR), Virtual Congress, 11–16 October 2021; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2021; pp. 59–60. [Google Scholar]
  54. Zdrojkowski, Ł.; Olszewski, J.; Domino, M.; Masko, M.; Trela, M.; Pawlinski, B.; Matyba, P.; Gajewski, Z. Vascular changes evaluation in equine endometrosis using novel measurement methods in the Masson’s Trichrome (MT) staining. In Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Conference of the European Society for Domestic Animal Reproduction (ESDAR), St. Petersburg, Russia, 19–22 September 2019; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2019; p. 94. [Google Scholar]
  55. Domino, M.; Jasiński, T.; Masko, M.; Domańska, D.; Zdrojkowski, Ł. Activation of hyaluronan synthases in equine endometrium affected by perivascular and degenerative endometrial fibrosis. In Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of the European Society for Domestic Animal Reproduction (ESDAR), Thessaloniki, Greece, 28 September–2 October 2022; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2022; p. 50. [Google Scholar]
  56. Domino, M.; Krajewska, A.; Zdrojkowski, Ł.; Olszewski, J.; Masko, M.; Gajewski, Z. The quantification of the histological features in equine endometrosis based on the Masson’s Trichrome staining. In Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Conference of the European Society for Domestic Animal Reproduction (ESDAR), St. Petersburg, Russia, 19–22 September 2019; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2019; p. 92. [Google Scholar]
  57. Domino, M.; Krajewska, A.; Zdrojkowski, Ł.; Sady, M.; Gajewski, Z. The evidence of heterochromatic of endometrial glandular epithelium in a case of equine endometrosis. In Proceedings of the Society for the Study of Reproduction (SSR) 52nd Annual Conference, San Jose, CA, USA, 18–21 July 2019; p. 376. [Google Scholar]
  58. Schöniger, S.; Gräfe, H.; Schoon, H.-A. Beta-Defensin Is a Component of the Endometrial Immune Defence in the Mare. Pferdeheilkunde 2013, 29, 335–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Esteller-Vico, A.; Liu, I.K.M.; Vaughan, B.; Steffey, E.P.; Brosnan, R.J. Effects of Vascular Elastosis on Uterine Blood Flow and Perfusion in Anesthetized Mares. Theriogenology 2015, 83, 988–994. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Podico, G.; Canisso, I.F.; Roady, P.J.; Austin, S.M.; Carossino, M.; Balasuriya, U.; Ellerbrock, R.E.; Lima, F.S.; Ferreira-Dias, G.; Douglas, R.H. Uterine Responses and Equine Chorionic Gonadotropin Concentrations after Two Intrauterine Infusions with Kerosene Post Early Fetal Loss in Mares. Theriogenology 2020, 147, 202–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  61. Rodriguez, J.S.; Han, S.; Nielsen, S.; Pearson, L.K.; Gay, J.M.; Tibary, A. Consequences of Intrauterine Enrofloxacin Infusion on Mare Endometrium. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2012, 32, 106–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Lüttgenau, J.; Imboden, I.; Wellnitz, O.; Romer, R.; Scaravaggi, I.; Neves, A.P.; Borel, N.; Bruckmaier, R.M.; Janett, F.; Bollwein, H. Intrauterine Infusion of Killed Semen Adversely Affects Uterine Blood Flow and Endometrial Gene Expression of Inflammatory Cytokines in Mares Susceptible to Persistent Breeding-Induced Endometritis. Theriogenology 2021, 163, 18–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Inoue, Y.; Ito, K.; Terada, T.; Nishimura, N.; Hatazoe, T.; Sato, K. Degenerative Changes in the Endometrial Vasculature of the Mare Detected by Videoendoscopic Examination. Proc. Am. Assoc. Equine Pract. 2000, 46, 325–329. [Google Scholar]
  64. Bracher, V.; Mathias, S.; Allen, W.R. Influence of Chronic Degenerative Endometritis (Endometrosis) on Placental Development in the Mare. Equine Vet. J. 1996, 28, 180–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Huchzermeyer, S.; Wehrend, A.; Bostedt, H. Histomorphology of the Equine Cervix. Anat. Histol. Embryol. 2005, 34, 38–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Camozzato, G.C.; Martinez, M.N.; Bastos, H.B.A.; Fiala-Rechsteiner, S.; Meikle, A.; Jobim, M.I.M.; Gregory, R.M.; Mattos, R.C. Ultrastructural and Histological Characteristics of the Endometrium during Early Embryo Development in Mares. Theriogenology 2019, 123, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Walter, I.; Handler, J.; Reifinger, M.; Aurich, C. Association of Endometriosis in Horses with Differentiation of Periglandular Myofibroblasts and Changes of Extracellular Matrix Proteins. Reproduction 2001, 121, 581–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Ovalle, W.K.; Nahirney, P.C. Chapter I.3 Connective Tissue. In Netter’s Essential Histology, 3rd Edition with Correlated Histopathology, 3rd ed.; Ovalle, W.K., Nahirney, P.C., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 55–77. [Google Scholar]
  69. Suvik, A.; Effendy, A.W.M. The Use of Modified Masson’s Trichrome Staining in Collagen Evaluation in Wound Healing Study. Mal. J. Vet. Res. 2012, 3, 39–47. [Google Scholar]
  70. Marcos-Garcés, V.; Harvat, M.; Molina Aguilar, P.; Ferrández Izquierdo, A.; Ruiz-Saurí, A. Comparative Measurement of Collagen Bundle Orientation by Fourier Analysis and Semiquantitative Evaluation: Reliability and Agreement in Masson’s Trichrome, Picrosirius Red and Confocal Microscopy Techniques. J. Microsc. 2017, 267, 130–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Lidbury, J.A.; Rodrigues Hoffmann, A.; Ivanek, R.; Cullen, J.M.; Porter, B.F.; Oliveira, F.; Van Winkle, T.J.; Grinwis, G.C.; Sucholdolski, J.S.; Steiner, J.M. Interobserver Agreement Using Histological Scoring of the Canine Liver. Vet. Intern. Med. 2017, 31, 778–783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Schilling, A. Die Endometriumbiopsie Bei Der Stute-Eine Analyse Der Histologischen Befunde Zwischen 1992–2012 Am Leipziger Institut Für Veterinär-Pathologie. 2017. Available online: https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:bsz:15-qucosa-224653 (accessed on 30 October 2023).
  73. Fernandes, C.B.; Ball, B.A.; Loux, S.C.; Boakari, Y.L.; Scoggin, K.E.; El-Sheikh Ali, H.; Cogliati, B.; Esteller-Vico, A. Uterine Cervix as a Fundamental Part of the Pathogenesis of Pregnancy Loss Associated with Ascending Placentitis in Mares. Theriogenology 2020, 145, 167–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  74. Katila, T. The Equine Cervix. Pferdeheilkunde Equine Med. 2012, 28, 35–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Lefranc, A.-C.; Allen, W.R. Influence of Breed and Oestrous Cycle on Endometrial Gland Surface Density in the Mare. Equine Vet. J. 2007, 39, 506–510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Ginther, O.J.; Pierson, R.A. Ultrasonic anatomy and pathology of the equine uterus. Theriogenology 1984, 21, 505–516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  77. Ferreira, J.C.; Canesin, H.S.; Ignácio, F.S.; Rocha, N.S.; Pinto, C.R.; Meira, C. Effect of Age and Endometrial Degenerative Changes on Uterine Blood Flow during Early Gestation in Mares. Theriogenology 2015, 84, 1123–1130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Nikolakopoulos, E.; Watson, E.D. Does artificial insemination with chilled, extended semen reduce the antigenic challenge to the mare’s uterus compared with natural service? Theriogenology 1997, 47, 583–590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  79. Bucca, S.; Carli, A.; Buckley, T.; Dolci, G.; Fogarty, U. The use of dexamethasone administered to mares at breeding time in the modulation of persistent mating induced endometritis. Theriogenology 2008, 70, 1093–1100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Wilsher, S.; Allen, W.R. Factors influencing placental development and function in the mare. Equine Vet. J. 2012, 41, 113–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Abdelnaby, E.A.; Emam, I.A.; Salem, N.Y.; Ramadan, E.S.; Khattab, M.S.; Farghali, H.A.; Abd El Kader, N.A. Uterine Hemodynamic Patterns, Oxidative Stress, and Chromoendoscopy in Mares with Endometritis. Theriogenology 2020, 158, 112–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Da Silva-Álvarez, E.; Gómez-Arrones, V.; Martín-Cano, F.E.; Gaitskell-Phillips, G.; Ortiz-Rodríguez, J.M.; Carrasco, J.J.; Gil, M.C.; Peña Vega, F.J.; Ortega Ferrusola, C. Endometrial Area of the Blood Flow as a Marker of Endometritis in Equine. Reprod. Domest. Anim. 2022, 57, 98–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Uitto, J. Connective Tissue Biochemistry of the Aging Dermis. Dermatol. Clin. 1986, 4, 433–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  84. Sobel, H. Aging of Connective Tissue and Molecular Transport. Gerontologia 2009, 14, 235–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  85. Bancroft, J.D.; Layton, C. Connective and Other Mesenchymal Tissues with Their Stains. In Bancroft’s Theory and Practice Histological Techniques E-Book; Churchill Livingstone; Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2018; Volume 153. [Google Scholar]
  86. Kiernan, J. Histological and Histochemical Methods, 5th ed.; Scion Publishing: Wickford, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  87. Zhou, J. Histochemistry; Walter de Gruyter: Berlin, Germany, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  88. Costa, G.M.; Araujo, S.L.; Xavier Júnior, F.A.F.; de Morais, G.B.; de Moraes Silveira, J.A.; de Araújo Viana, D.; Evangelista, J.S.A.M. Picrosirius red and masson’s trichrome staining techniques as tools for detection of collagen fibers in the skin of dogs with endocrine dermatopathologies. Ciência Anim. Bras. 2019, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. López De Padilla, C.M.; Coenen, M.J.; Tovar, A.; De La Vega, R.E.; Evans, C.H.; Müller, S.A. Picrosirius Red Staining: Revisiting Its Application to the Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment of Collagen Type I and Type III in Tendon. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 2021, 69, 633–643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  90. Courtoy, G.E.; Leclercq, I.; Froidure, A.; Schiano, G.; Morelle, J.; Devuyst, O.; Huaux, F.; Bouzin, C. Digital Image Analysis of Picrosirius Red Staining: A Robust Method for Multi-Organ Fibrosis Quantification and Characterization. Biomolecules 2020, 10, 1585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  91. Mudasir, Z.; Adil, S.; Edriss, A.I. Comparison between Giemsa and Van Gieson Stains in Demonstration of Collagen Fibers (Kosti-2016). Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2016, 15, 2063–2067. [Google Scholar]
  92. Carson, F.L.; Hladik, C. Histotechnology A Self-Instructional Text, 4th ed.; American Society for Clinical Pathology Press: Chicago, IL, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  93. Kazlouskaya, V.; Malhotra, S.; Lambe, J.; Idriss, M.H.; Elston, D.; Andres, C. The Utility of Elastic Verhoeff-Van Gieson Staining in Dermatopathology. J. Cutan. Pathol. 2013, 40, 211–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Exbrayat, J.-M. Histochemical and Cytochemical Methods of Visualization; Taylor & Francis Group: Abingdon-on-Thames, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  95. Dey, P. Connective Tissue Stain: Principle and Procedure. In Basic and Advanced Laboratory Techniques in Histopathology and Cytology; Dey, P., Ed.; Springer Nature: Singapore, 2018; pp. 99–108. [Google Scholar]
  96. Hong, J.H.; Kim, D.H.; Rhyu, I.J.; Kye, Y.C.; Ahn, H.H. A Simple Morphometric Analysis Method for Dermal Microstructure Using Color Thresholding and Moments. Skin Res. Technol. 2020, 26, 132–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Van De Vlekkert, D.; Machado, E.; d’Azzo, A. Analysis of Generalized Fibrosis in Mouse Tissue Sections with Masson’s Trichrome Staining. Bio. Protoc. 2020, 10, e3629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. McGavin, M.D. Factors Affecting Visibility of a Target Tissue in Histologic Sections. Vet. Pathol. 2014, 51, 9–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Conrad, C.H.; Brooks, W.W.; Hayes, J.A.; Sen, S.; Robinson, K.G.; Bing, O.H.L. Myocardial Fibrosis and Stiffness with Hypertrophy and Heart Failure in the Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat. Circulation 1995, 91, 161–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  100. Humphrey, C.D.; Pittman, F.E. A Simple Methylene Blue-Azure Ii-Basic Fuchsin Stain for Epoxy-Embedded Tissue Sections. Stain Technol. 1974, 49, 9–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  101. Cima, F. Enzyme Histochemistry for Functional Histology in Invertebrates. In Histochemistry of Single Molecules: Methods and Protocols; Pellicciari, C., Biggiogera, M., Eds.; Springer Nature: New York, NY, USA, 2017; Volume 1560, pp. 69–90. [Google Scholar]
  102. Nakakoshi, M.; Nishioka, H.; Katayama, E. New Versatile Staining Reagents for Biological Transmission Electron Microscopy That Substitute for Uranyl Acetate. J. Electron. Microsc. Tech. 2011, 60, 401–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  103. Leslie, S.A.; Mitchell, J.C. Removing Gold Coating from Sem Samples. Palaeontology 2007, 50, 1459–1461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Bråten, T. High Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy in Biology: Artefacts Caused by the Nature and Mode of Application of the Coating Material. J. Microsc. 1978, 113, 53–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  105. Lunelli, D.; Cirio, S.M.; Leite, S.C.; Camargo, C.E.; Kozicki, L.E. Collagen Types in Relation to Expression of Estradiol and Progesterone Receptors in Equine Endometrial Fibrosis. Adv. Biosci. Biotechnol. 2013, 4, 599–605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Krenacs, T.; Krenacs, L.; Raffeld, M. Multiple Antigen Immunostaining Procedures. Methods Mol. Biol. 2010, 588, 281–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  107. Cordell, J. Developing Monoclonal Antibodies for Immunohistochemistry. Cells 2022, 11, 243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Wick, M.R. Histochemistry as a Tool in Morphological Analysis: A Historical Review. Ann. Diagn. Pathol. 2012, 16, 71–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Hinkelman, L.M.; Metlay, L.A.; Churukian, C.J.; Waag, R.C. Modified Gomori Trichrome Stain for Macroscopic Tissue Slices. J. Histotechnol. 1996, 19, 321–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Horobin, R.W. Chapter: 4 Staining Methods Involving Dyeing. In An Explanatory Outline of Histochemistry and Biophysical Staining; Horobin, R.W., Ed.; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 1982; pp. 56–110. [Google Scholar]
  111. Akita, M.; Yasuno, K.; Kaneko, K. Properties of Various Staining Solutions for Elastic Fibers-Comparison of Conventional Methods and the Alum Hematoxylin Methods for Staining Elastic Fibers. Okajimas Folia Anat. Jpn. 1982, 58, 555–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
  112. Pujar, A.; Pereira, T.; Tamgadge, A.; Bhalerao, S.; Tamgadge, S. Comparing the Efficacy of Hematoxylin and Eosin, Periodic Acid Schiff and Fluorescent Periodic Acid Schiff-Acriflavine Techniques for Demonstration of Basement Membrane in Oral Lichen Planus: A Histochemical Study. Indian J. Dermatol. 2015, 60, 450–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  113. Graham, L.; Orenstein, J.M. Processing Tissue and Cells for Transmission Electron Microscopy in Diagnostic Pathology and Research. Nat. Protoc. 2007, 2, 2439–2450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  114. Tzaphlidou, M.; Chapman, J.A.; Al-Samman, M.H. A Study of Positive Staining for Electron Microscopy Using Collagen as a Model System—II. Staining by Uranyl Ions. Micron 1982, 13, 133–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Pawley, J. The development of field-emission scanning electron microscopy for imaging biological surfaces. Scanning 1997, 19, 324–336. [Google Scholar]
  116. Carnevale, E.M.; Ginther, O.J. Relationships of Age to Uterine Function and Reproductive Efficiency in Mares. Theriogenology 1992, 37, 1101–1115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Westendorf, J.; Wobeser, B.; Epp, T. IIB or Not IIB, Part 2: Assessing Inter-Rater and Intra-Rater Repeatability of the Kenney–Doig Scale in Equine Endometrial Biopsy Evaluation. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2022, 34, 215–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Wójtowicz, A.; Molcan, T.; Lukasik, K.; Żebrowska, E.; Pawlina-Tyszko, K.; Gurgul, A.; Szmatoła, T.; Bugno-Poniewierska, M.; Ferreira-Dias, G.; Skarzynski, D.J.; et al. The Potential Role of miRNAs and Regulation of Their Expression in the Development of Mare Endometrial Fibrosis. Sci. Rep. 2023, 13, 15938. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Alpoim-Moreira, J. Mare Endometrium Fibrosis: Epigenetics and Novel Fibrosis Markers. 2023. Available online: http://hdl.handle.net/10400.5/27949 (accessed on 30 October 2023).
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Article Metrics

Citations

Article Access Statistics

Journal Statistics
Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view.
Download PDF
Temperament Behaviours in Individually Tested Sheep Are Not Related to Behaviours Expressed in the Presence of Conspecifics
Previous
Does Keeping Cows for More Lactations Affect the Composition and Technological Properties of the Milk?
Next