Role of Infection and Immunity in Bovine Perinatal Mortality: Part 1. Causes and Current Diagnostic Approaches
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Infectious Causes of Perinatal Mortality
2.1. Principles of Perinatal Infections
2.1.1. Types of Infectious Agents
2.1.2. Co-Infection
2.1.3. Primary and Secondary Pathogens
2.1.4. Infectious Agents Linked to Perinatal Mortality
Bacillus licheniformis
Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus (BVDv)
Leptospira spp.
Neospora caninum
2.1.5. Infectious Agents Less Commonly Causally Linked to Perinatal Mortality
Bovine Herpes Viruses
Chlamydia and Chlamydia-Like Organisms
Coxiella burnetii
Escherichia coli
Fungi and Yeasts
Listeria monocytogenes
Mycoplasma Species
Salmonella Species
Schmallenberg Virus (SBV)
Trueperella pyogenes
2.1.6. Contaminant Bacteria
2.1.7. In Utero vs. Postnatal Infection
Intra-Uterine Infections
Postnatal Infections
2.1.8. Exposure, Infection and Causality
2.1.9. Proportion of Perinatal Mortality Caused by Infection
3. Diagnosis of Infectious Causes of Perinatal Mortality
3.1. Herd Health History
3.2. Cohort Sampling
3.3. Examination of the Dam
3.4. Examination of the Foetus
3.4.1. Sampling the Carcass
Microbiology Samples
3.4.2. Serology Samples
3.4.3. Histopathology Samples
3.4.4. Standard Microbiology Package
3.4.5. Sample Storage
3.5. Examination of the Placenta
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | Perinate Definition | Calves (No.) | Calf Type | Dystocia | Anoxia | Congenital Defects | Infection | Other | Unknown | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | Gestation >260 d—stillborn | 19 | Dairy | 21.1 | NR 1 | NR | 10.6 | 5.3 | 68.4 | [9] |
Belgium | Gestation fullterm—died ≤24 h | NR | Dairy & Beef | 7 | 55 | 6 | 18 | 4 | 10 | [15] |
Canada | Gestation >8 mths—died <1 h | 560 | Beef | 40.2 | NR | 4.3 | 4.3 | 31 | 20.2 | [13] |
Denmark | Stillbirth | 130 | Dairy & Beef | 9 | 81 | 1.5 | 8 | 0.1 | 0 | [5] |
Finland | Gestation fullterm—died ≤24 h | 148 | Dairy | 43 | NR 2 | 10 | 14 | 8 | 25 | [6] |
Iceland | Gestation fullterm—died ≤24 h | 129 | Dairy | 34 | 37 | NR | 12 | 13 | 3.9 | [16] |
Ireland | Gestation ≥260 d—died ≤48 h | 1345 | Dairy | 33 | 10 | 11 | 9 | 28 | 9 | [10] |
Japan | Stillbirth | 155 | Beef | 21 | NR | 3.9 | NR | 5.1 | 69.7 | [17] |
Netherlands | Stillbirth | 193 | Dairy | 4 | 37 | 8.3 | 7.3 | 6 | 42 | [18] |
Nr. Ireland | Gestation fullterm—died ≤10 min. | 365 | Dairy | 23 | 46 | NR | 31 | NR | NR | [19] |
Poland | Gestation fullterm—died ≤6 h | 121 | Dairy | NR | NR | NR | 9.9 | NR | NR | [4] |
Scotland | Gestation fullterm—died ≤48 h | 54 | Beef | 37 2 | NR | 11.1 | 35.2 | 3.7 | 13.0 | [14] |
Sweden | Gestation fullterm—died ≤24 h | 76 | Dairy | 46.1 | NR | 5.3 | 2.6 | 10.5 | 35.5 | [20] |
Switzerland 3 | Gestation ≥260 d—died ≤48 h | 47 | Dairy | 4.3 | NR | 0 | 34 | 4.2 | 57.5 | [21] |
USA | Gestation fullterm—died ≤48 h | 60 | Dairy | 25 | 28.5 | 3.3 | 5 | 6.6 | 31.6 | [22] |
Primary | Secondary |
---|---|
Akabane virus | Absidia spp. |
Anaplasma phagocytophilium | Arcobacteria spp. |
Aspergillus spp. | Acinetobacter species |
Bluetongue virus | Actinomyces spp. |
Brucella abortus | Aerococcus spp. |
Bovine adenovirus 5 | Aeromonas hydrophila |
Bovine herpes viruses 1 and 4 | Bacillus spp. |
Bovine viral diarrhoea virus | Chlamydia-related organisms (CRO), e.g., Parachlamydia-like organisms (PCO), Waddlia spp. |
Bacillus licheniformis | Citrobacter youngae |
Campylobacter foetus spp. | Escherichia spp. |
Chlamydophila abortus | Fusobacterium spp |
Clostridium perfringens | Hafnia alvei |
Coxiella burntiii | Histophilus somni |
Leptospira spp. | Klebsiella pneumonia |
Listeria monocytogenes | Listeria spp. |
Mycoplasma spp. | Mannheimia spp. |
Neospora caninum | Neisseria, |
Parainfluenza 3 virus | Nocardia spp. |
Salmonella spp. | Pantoea agglomerans |
Schmallenberg virus | Pasteurella spp. |
Trichomonas foetus foetus | Providencia stuartii |
Trueperella pyogenes | Serratia spp. |
Staphylococcus spp. | |
Streptococcus spp. | |
Ureaplasma spp. | |
Yeasts | |
Yersinia spp. |
Country | Infected Calves (No.) | Infection(%) | Bac. lich. | Cox. burn. | Fungi | Lepto. spp. | List. spp. | Neo. cani. | Tru. pyog. | Salm. spp. | Viruses | Other inf. | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | 19 | 10.6 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 5.3 | NR | NR | NR | 5.3 | [9] |
Belgium | NR | 18 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 12 | 6 | [15] |
Canada | 560 | 4.3 | NR | NR | NR | NR | 0.4 | 0.2 | NR | NR | 0.2 | 3.5 | [13] |
Denmark | 130 | 8 | 1 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 7 | NR | [5] |
Finland | 148 | 14 | 5 | NR | NR | NR | NR | 2 | 0.7 | NR | NR | 6.3 | [6] |
Iceland | 129 | 12 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 12 | [16] |
Ireland | 1345 | 9 | 0.80 | NR | NR | 0.6 | 0.2 | 1.5 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 4 | [10] |
Netherlands | 193 | 7.3 | 1.6 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 1.6 | 4.1 | NR | [18] |
Nr. Ireland | 365 | 31 | NR | NR | NR | 13.4 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 17.6 | [19] |
Poland | 121 | 9.9 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 7.4 | NR | NR | NR | 1.7 | [4] |
Scotland | 54 | 35.2 | 5.5 | NR | 3.7 | 1.9 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 24.1 | [14] |
Sweden | 76 | 2.6 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 2.6 | [20] |
Switzerland | 47 | 77 | NR | 31.9 | 8.5 | 6.4 | NR | 2.1 | NR | NR | NR | 28.1 | [21] |
USA | 60 | 5 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 5 | NR | [22] |
For Investigation of | Standard Samples | Ancillary Samples | Comments |
---|---|---|---|
Failure of passive transfer of immunoglobulins | Perinate blood | NA ** | Only test calves >24 h old, e.g., ZST test |
Foetopathogenic bacteria and fungi (e.g., Aspergillus spp., B. licheniformis, L. monocytogenes, T. pyogenes, S. Dublin) | Foetal stomach contents (FSC), Placenta (ideally collected from dam to reduce contamination) | Foetal lung, liver, gall bladder, kidney, brain, eyelid. Dam vaginal swab, placentome, blood. | Ancillary samples where FSC/placenta unavailable/contaminated. |
Neospora caninum | Foetal brain, serum | Foetal heart. Placenta. Dam/cohort bloods | Fresh brain/placenta for PCR, fixed brain or heart/placenta for histopathology if PCR positive |
Leptospira Hardjo | Foetal kidney, serum | Dam/cohort bloods | Foetal sample dependent upon lab. tests |
BVDv | Foetal ear, spleen, thymus, serum | Foetal kidney. Dam/cohort bloods | Foetal sample dependent upon lab. Tests |
BHV-I | Foetal liver, serum. | Foetal kidney. Placenta. Dam/cohort bloods | Foetal PCR/histopathology preferred tests |
Gross lesions (e.g., foetal pneumonia) | Affected foetal organ | As required | As appropriate (e.g., bacteriology, histopath) |
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Mee, J.F.; Jawor, P.; Stefaniak, T. Role of Infection and Immunity in Bovine Perinatal Mortality: Part 1. Causes and Current Diagnostic Approaches. Animals 2021, 11, 1033. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11041033
Mee JF, Jawor P, Stefaniak T. Role of Infection and Immunity in Bovine Perinatal Mortality: Part 1. Causes and Current Diagnostic Approaches. Animals. 2021; 11(4):1033. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11041033
Chicago/Turabian StyleMee, John F., Paulina Jawor, and Tadeusz Stefaniak. 2021. "Role of Infection and Immunity in Bovine Perinatal Mortality: Part 1. Causes and Current Diagnostic Approaches" Animals 11, no. 4: 1033. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11041033
APA StyleMee, J. F., Jawor, P., & Stefaniak, T. (2021). Role of Infection and Immunity in Bovine Perinatal Mortality: Part 1. Causes and Current Diagnostic Approaches. Animals, 11(4), 1033. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11041033