Next Article in Journal
Combined Antiviral and Cytoprotective Action of Rosmarinic Acid Against EV-A71 Infection: A Potential Therapeutic Strategy
Previous Article in Journal
The EGFR Signaling Pathway Is Involved in the Biliary Intraepithelial Neoplasia Associated with Liver Fluke Infection
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Editorial

Challenges in Emerging and Reemerging Arboviral Diseases: The Examples of Oropouche and Yellow Fever

by
Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales
1,2,*,
Ranjit Sah
3,4,
Carlos Ramiro Silva-Ramos
5 and
Diana Marcela Pava-Garzón
6
1
Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima 15067, Peru
2
Grupo de Investigación Biomedicina, Facultad de Medicina, Fundación Universitaria Autónoma de las Américas-Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Pereira 660003, Risaralda, Colombia
3
Department of Medicine, Dr. D. Y. Patil Medical College, Hospital and Research Centre, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth (Deemed-to-be-University), Pimpri, Pune 411018, Maharashtra, India
4
SR Sanjeevani Hospital, Kalyanpur-10, Siraha 121102, Nepal
5
Grupo de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá D.C. 110311, Colombia
6
Instituto Nacional de Salud (INS), Bogotá D.C. 111321, Colombia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Pathogens 2025, 14(7), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14070621
Submission received: 17 June 2025 / Accepted: 19 June 2025 / Published: 23 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)
The global burden of arboviral diseases continues to rise with alarming frequency and impact [1]. Traditionally associated with tropical and subtropical regions, arboviruses are increasingly becoming a public health concern in broader geographical areas due to urbanization, climate change, deforestation, and increased human mobility [2]. Among these, Oropouche virus (OROV) and yellow fever virus (YFV), recently renamed as Orthobunyavirus oropoucheense and Orthoflavivirus flavi, respectively [3,4], represent two distinct yet illustrative examples of the complex and evolving challenges posed by emerging and reemerging arboviruses [5,6,7]. Recent and ongoing outbreaks of both viruses highlight significant gaps in surveillance, diagnostics, clinical management, and prevention—gaps that must be urgently addressed to strengthen global preparedness and responses [8,9,10]. In 2024 and 2025, OROV gained attention due to a marked increase in reported cases [11,12]. YFV remains a significant concern due to its high case fatality rate (Table 1).
Oropouche virus, an orthobunyavirus transmitted by Culicoides paraensis midges, remains a neglected tropical arbovirus despite its frequent outbreaks in South America [13,14,15]. Since its first identification in Trinidad and Tobago in 1955, OROV has caused numerous epidemics, particularly in the Amazonian regions of Brazil, Peru, and, more recently, Ecuador and Colombia [16]. As part of the broad differential diagnosis of acute undifferentiated febrile illness, OROV is clinically indistinguishable from other etiologies, often leading to misdiagnosis and underreporting, which complicates its recognition and documentation [12]. Although generally self-limiting, OROV infection can be debilitating and, in some cases, associated with neurologic complications such as meningitis and encephalitis [17,18].
The lack of awareness, coupled with minimal surveillance infrastructure and the absence of point-of-care diagnostics, means that the actual burden of Oropouche virus (OROV) remains vastly underestimated. In the absence of a vaccine, clinical suspicion plays a crucial role; however, it is currently insufficient due to limited understanding of the disease and its inconsistent inclusion in differential diagnoses by physicians. Most cases remain undetected or misclassified, as there are no validated rapid diagnostic tests or field-deployable serological assays. Confirmatory testing depends on RT-PCR, which is primarily performed in centralized laboratories using standardized protocols across several countries. While this facilitates regional monitoring, it often leads to significant delays in outbreak detection and response. Expanding RT-PCR capabilities to subnational laboratories remains a critical yet challenging goal that could strengthen early detection. This persistent diagnostic gap, combined with OROV’s potential for urban outbreaks due to its vector ecology, constitutes a latent but serious public health threat [19,20].
In contrast, yellow fever is a well-known, historically devastating flavivirus that continues to pose a significant challenge to public health systems in endemic regions [21]. While a safe and effective vaccine exists and is part of routine immunization programs in many countries [8], the past decade has witnessed a resurgence of yellow fever, with significant outbreaks occurring in Angola, Brazil, Nigeria, and, more recently, Colombia [22]. These events highlight critical vulnerabilities in vaccination coverage for areas with difficult geographical access and outbreaks [11,23,24].
A particularly concerning aspect of the resurgence of yellow fever in the Americas has been its encroachment into previously unaffected areas, including urban and peri-urban zones, raising fears of large-scale outbreaks [25,26]. In Colombia, severe yellow fever cases in humans [27], as well as confirmed infections in non-human primates (NHPs) [28], have underscored the importance of sylvatic surveillance and the need for rapid, evidence-based clinical management protocols [29]. Encouragingly, recent developments such as the proposed clinical algorithm for managing severe yellow fever in Colombia provide a valuable step forward, aligning clinical decision-making with the available evidence [29]. However, additional tools are needed, which must be updated continuously as new evidence emerges.
Despite the availability of the yellow fever vaccine (Table 1), global production remains insufficient, particularly in response to unexpected outbreak demands [30,31]. The World Health Organization (WHO)’s adoption of fractional dosing as an emergency strategy—using one-fifth of the standard dose—has stirred both praise for its practicality and concern regarding the duration of immunity conferred, particularly in children [30,31,32,33,34]. This situation highlights the broader issue of vaccine supply chain fragility, even for long-standing diseases with established preventive measures in place.
Both OROV and YFV illustrate fundamental shortcomings in arboviral disease surveillance. For OROV, weak or absent surveillance networks in some countries, particularly outside South America [35], lead to underreporting, which hinders the development of effective public health interventions [12]. For YFV, surveillance often hinges on the detection of sentinel events such as NHP die-offs, which, while valuable, are reactive rather than proactive [28].
Another major limitation is the scarcity of robust, field-deployable diagnostic tools. For OROV, the lack of serological assays remains a critical barrier to case confirmation, particularly in remote or resource-limited settings (Table 1). YFV faces a different but equally challenging situation: while serological tests exist, they often cross-react with other flaviviruses, particularly in dengue- and Zika-endemic regions, which complicates their interpretation (Table 1).
Here, genomic epidemiology emerges as a powerful tool with transformative potential [36,37,38]. By enabling the high-resolution tracking of viral evolution, lineage displacement, and transmission dynamics, genomic surveillance can guide targeted interventions and monitor vaccine efficacy (Table 1) [27]. The integration of sequencing data with traditional epidemiological methods should become standard practice, especially as costs decrease and portable sequencing platforms become more accessible. However, implementation of these tools in real time and hypotheses formulation remains a challenge, as the measurement of these genetic indicators will always be limited by the amount of viral population analyzed, the occurrence of cases in each region, as well as the biological and genetic characteristics of each virus.
The development of evidence-based clinical guidelines for severe arboviral diseases remains uneven. While the recent proposal for yellow fever management in Colombia marks essential progress [29], there is a lack of guidelines for OROV. In 2024, the Committee on Tropical Medicine of the Pan American Association of Infectious Diseases developed recommendations for diagnostic approaches toward and the clinical and epidemiological management of patients with suspected Mayaro and Oropouche virus infections. Unfortunately, these recommendations are only available in Spanish and can only be accessed on their website (https://apiinfectologia.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mayaro_Oropouche-V2.pdf) (accessed on 1 April 2025).
Given the potential for severe neurological complications [39,40,41] and the burden of misdiagnosed febrile illness, developing clinical algorithms for OROV management, even if initially empirical, should be prioritized. Prospective clinical studies, supported by improved diagnostics, will be key to this endeavor.
Prevention remains the cornerstone of arboviral disease control. For YFV, while the vaccine is effective, some challenges persist, including coverage gaps, logistical hurdles, and unresolved concerns about vaccine safety and fractional dosing. Strategic investment in vaccine production capacity, stockpile management, and targeted immunization campaigns is crucial for ensuring preparedness and a rapid response. In contrast, the OROV situation is far more concerning. There are currently no licensed vaccines, and candidate vaccines are far from implementation, still in the preclinical stages, without ongoing human trials [42,43]. The lack of commercial interest, despite recurring outbreaks and an expanding geographic range, reflects the broader neglect of “orphan” arboviruses. Public–private partnerships, facilitated by international health organizations, will be critical in advancing vaccine development for OROV and similar emerging threats. Accelerating vaccine development for OROV and other emerging threats is not only a scientific necessity, but also a global public health imperative that demands sustained political will, strategic investment, and coordinated public–private partnerships, actively led by international health organizations, to avoid repeating cycles of neglect and unpreparedness in the face of the next epidemic.
The concurrent emergence and reemergence of OROV and YFV illustrate the multifaceted challenges that come with arboviral diseases in the 21st century. While yellow fever serves as a cautionary tale of resurgence despite existing preventive tools, OROV reminds us of the threats posed by under-recognized and under-researched viruses. Both demand urgent attention to strengthen surveillance, improve diagnostics, promote genomic epidemiology, and develop evidence-based clinical management strategies. Ultimately, sustained investment, international collaboration, and political commitment will be necessary to close these critical gaps and enhance global health security.

Author Contributions

A.J.R.-M. drafted the Editorial, and R.S., C.R.S.-R. and D.M.P.-G. contributed to subsequent versions’ revision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments

This article has been registered in the Research Proposal Registration of the Coordination of Scientific Integrity and Surveillance of the Universidad Cientifica del Sur, Lima, Peru.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Villamil-Gómez, W.E.; Franco-Paredes, C. The arboviral burden of disease caused by co-circulation and co-infection of dengue, chikungunya, and Zika in the Americas. Travel. Med. Infect. Dis. 2016, 14, 177–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Brem, J.; Elankeswaran, B.; Erne, D.; Hedrich, N.; Lovey, T.; Marzetta, V.; Salvado, L.T.; Züger, C.; Schlagenhauf, P. Dengue “homegrown” in Europe (2022 to 2023). New Microbes New Infect. 2024, 56, 101205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Postler, T.S.; Beer, M.; Blitvich, B.J.; Bukh, J.; de Lamballerie, X.; Drexler, J.F.; Imrie, A.; Kapoor, A.; Karganova, G.G.; Lemey, P.; et al. Renaming of the genus Flavivirus to Orthoflavivirus and extension of binomial species names within the family Flaviviridae. Arch. Virol. 2023, 168, 224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. de Souza, W.M.; Calisher, C.H.; Carrera, J.P.; Hughes, H.R.; Nunes, M.R.T.; Russell, B.; Tilson-Lunel, N.L.; Venter, M.; Xia, H. ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Peribunyaviridae 2024. J. Gen. Virol. 2024, 105, 002034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Fischer, C.; Frühauf, A.; Inchauste, L.; Cassiano, M.H.A.; Ramirez, H.A.; Barthélémy, K.; Machicado, L.B.; Bozza, F.A.; Brites, C.; Cabada, M.M.; et al. The spatiotemporal ecology of Oropouche virus across Latin America: A multidisciplinary, laboratory-based, modelling study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2025; online ahead of print. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Mattar, S.; López, Y.; Arrieta, G.; Mattar, A.S.; Bandeira, A.C.; Paniz-Mondolfi, A.; Drexler, J.F.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J. The next arbovirus epidemic in Latin America and beyond: A question of when, not if-Mayaro, Oropouche, Usutu or Disease X? Travel. Med. Infect. Dis. 2025, 64, 102818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Drexler, J.F. Re-emergence of Oropouche virus in Brazil and Latin America. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2025, 25, 137–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Reno, E.; Quan, N.G.; Franco-Paredes, C.; Chastain, D.B.; Chauhan, L.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Henao-Martínez, A.F. Prevention of yellow fever in travellers: An update. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2020, 20, e129–e137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Srivastava, S.; Dhoundiyal, S.; Kumar, S.; Kaur, A.; Khatib, M.N.; Gaidhane, S.; Zahiruddin, Q.S.; Mohanty, A.; Henao-Martinez, A.F.; Krsak, M.; et al. Yellow Fever: Global Impact, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Integrated Prevention Approaches. Infez. Med. 2024, 32, 434–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. de Lima, R.C.; Dias, H.G.; de Souza, T.M.A.; Familiar-Macedo, D.; Ribeiro, E.D.; Corrêa, V.C.E.; Pauvolid-Corrêa, A.; de Azeredo, E.L.; Dos Santos, F.B. Oropouche Virus Exposure in Febrile Patients during Chikungunya Virus Introduction in the State of Amapá, Amazon Region, Brazil. Pathogens 2024, 13, 469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Angerami, R.N.; Socorro Souza Chaves, T.D.; Rodríguez-Morales, A.J. Yellow fever outbreaks in South America: Current epidemiology, legacies of the recent past and perspectives for the near future. New Microbes New Infect. 2025, 65, 101580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Srivastava, S.; Sah, R.; Babu, M.R.; Sharma, D.; Sharma, D.; Kumar, S.; Sridhar, S.B.; Wadhwa, T.; Shareef, J.; Rao, G.; et al. The emergence of oropouche fever: A potential new threat? New Microbes New Infect. 2025, 65, 101596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Pérez, Y.M.; Ibáñez, A.C.; Díaz, Z.M.; Acosta, E.C.; González, M.S.; García, N.C.; Del Rosario Casanova Drake, Q.; Gutierrez-Bugallo, G. First report of Culicoides paraensis (Goeldi, 1905) (Diptera: Ceratoponidae) in Cuba: A new challenge for public health. Parasite Epidemiol. Control 2025, 29, e00423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Huerta, H.; Navarrete-Carballo, J.; Rodríguez-Rojas, J.; Correa-Morales, F.; Manrique-Saide, P. New records of Culicoides (Haematomyidium) paraensis and a key to adult Culicoides from Yucatan peninsula, Mexico. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 2024, 40, 198–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Ali, Q.M.; Imad, H.A.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Matsee, W. Risk of Oropouche virus importation to Southeast Asia via international travelers. J. Travel. Med. 2025, 32, taaf009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Anderson, C.R.; Spence, L.; Downs, W.G.; Aitken, T.H. Oropouche virus: A new human disease agent from Trinidad, West Indies. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1961, 10, 574–578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Bello-Rodríguez, B.M.; Vega-Jiménez, J.; Cañete, R.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J. Emergence of Oropouche virus infection in Matanzas, Cuba, 2024. J. Infect. 2025, 90, 106470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Sah, R.; Satapathy, P.; Gaidhane, A.; Vadia, N.; Menon, S.; Chennakesavulu, K.; Panigrahi, R.; Bushi, G.; Singh, M.P.; Sah, S.; et al. Neurological Manifestations in Oropouche Virus Infection: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. 2025 Authorea 2025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Fonseca, L.; Carvalho, R.H.; Bandeira, A.C.; Sardi, S.I.; Campos, G.S. Oropouche Virus Detection in Febrile Patients’ Saliva and Urine Samples in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, 73, 164–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Riccò, M.; Corrado, S.; Bottazzoli, M.; Marchesi, F.; Gili, R.; Bianchi, F.P.; Frisicale, E.M.; Guicciardi, S.; Fiacchini, D.; Tafuri, S.; et al. (Re-)Emergence of Oropouche Virus (OROV) Infections: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Viruses 2024, 16, 1498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Sanchez-Rojas, I.C.; Solarte-Jimenez, C.L.; Chamorro-Velazco, E.C.; Diaz-Llerena, G.E.; Arevalo, C.D.; Cuasquer-Posos, O.L.; Bonilla-Aldana, J.L.; Bonilla-Aldana, D.K.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J. Yellow fever in Putumayo, Colombia, 2024. New Microbes New Infect. 2025, 64, 101572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Alvarez-Moreno, C.A.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J. Challenges of the current yellow fever outbreak in Colombia. Lancet, 2025; online ahead of print. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Rodríguez-Morales, A.J.; Bonilla-Aldana, D.K.; Suárez, J.A.; Franco-Paredes, C.; Forero-Peña, D.A.; Mattar, S.; Villamil-Gómez, W.E.; Ruíz-Sáenz, J.; Cardona-Ospina, J.A.; Figuera, M.E.; et al. Yellow fever reemergence in Venezuela-Implications for international travelers and Latin American countries during the COVID-19 pandemic. Travel. Med. Infect. Dis. 2021, 44, 102192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Garcia, H.L.P. Epidemic Outbreaks Related to Yellow Fever Viruses. Methods Mol. Biol. 2025, 2913, 251–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Dantas Andrade, V.D.G.; Ribeiro Adelino, T.; Fonseca, V.; Farias Moreno, K.M.; Ribeiro Tomé, L.M.; Pereira, L.A.; de La-Roque, D.G.L.; de Filippis, A.M.B.; Ramos, D.G.; Ramalho, D.B.; et al. Re-emergence of Yellow Fever Virus in Brazil: Evidence from Forest and peri-urban Settings. medRxiv 2025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Cunha, M.D.P.; Duarte-Neto, A.N.; Pour, S.Z.; Ortiz-Baez, A.S.; Černý, J.; Pereira, B.B.S.; Braconi, C.T.; Ho, Y.L.; Perondi, B.; Sztajnbok, J.; et al. Origin of the São Paulo Yellow Fever epidemic of 2017-2018 revealed through molecular epidemiological analysis of fatal cases. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 20418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Perez, L.J.; Perez-Restrepo, L.S.; Ciuoderis, K.; Usuga, J.; Moreno, I.; Vargas, V.; Arévalo-Arbelaez, A.J.; Berg, M.G.; Cloherty, G.A.; Hernández-Ortiz, J.P.; et al. Emergence, persistence, and positive selection of yellow fever virus in Colombia. Front. Microbiol. 2025, 16, 1548556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Bonilla-Aldana, D.K.; Bonilla-Aldana, J.L.; Castellanos, J.E.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J. Importance of Epizootic Surveillance in the Epidemiology of Yellow Fever in South America. Curr. Trop. Med. Rep. 2025, 12, 16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Forero-Delgadillo, A.J.; Morales-Olivera, J.A.; Celis-Guzmán, J.F.; Zapata-Díaz, O.E.; González-Varona, G.A.; Acevedo-Bedoya, C.A.; Salazar-Fernández, R.; Ordoñez, J.O.; Robayo-Amortegui, H.; Quintero-Altare, A.; et al. Colombian consensus on the care of critically ill patients with suspected or confirmed severe yellow fever. Lancet Reg. Health-Am. 2025, 48, 101144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Roukens, A.H.E.; Visser, L.G. Fractional-dose yellow fever vaccination: An expert review. J. Travel. Med. 2019, 26, taz024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Visser, L.G. Fractional-dose yellow fever vaccination: How much more can we do with less? Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2019, 32, 390–393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Kimathi, D.; Juan-Giner, A.; Bob, N.S.; Orindi, B.; Namulwana, M.L.; Diatta, A.; Cheruiyot, S.; Fall, G.; Dia, M.; Hamaluba, M.M.; et al. Low-Dose Yellow Fever Vaccine in Adults in Africa. N. Engl. J. Med. 2025, 392, 788–797. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Abdala-Torres, T.; Campi-Azevedo, A.C.; da Silva-Pereira, R.A.; Dos Santos, L.I.; Henriques, P.M.; Costa-Rocha, I.A.; Otta, D.A.; Peruhype-Magalhães, V.; Teixeira-Carvalho, A.; Araújo, M.S.S.; et al. Immune response induced by standard and fractional doses of 17DD yellow fever vaccine. NPJ Vaccines 2024, 9, 54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Reis, L.R.; Costa-Rocha, I.A.; Abdala-Torres, T.; Campi-Azevedo, A.C.; Peruhype-Magalhães, V.; Araújo, M.S.S.; Spezialli, E.; do Valle Antonelli, L.R.; da Silva-Pereira, R.A.; Almeida, G.G.; et al. Comprehensive landscape of neutralizing antibody and cell-mediated response elicited by the 1/5 fractional dose of 17DD-YF primary vaccination in adults. Sci. Rep. 2024, 14, 7709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Navarro, J.C.; Paniz-Mondolfi, A.; Forero-Peña, D.A.; Romero-Alvarez, D.; Naranjo-Lara, L.; Suárez, J.A. Reemergence of Oropouche virus infection in Venezuela, 2025. New Microbes New Infect. 2025, 65, 101583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Rabaan, A.A.; Al-Ahmed, S.H.; Sah, R.; Al-Tawfiq, J.A.; Haque, S.; Harapan, H.; Arteaga-Livias, K.; Aldana, D.K.B.; Kumar, P.; Dhama, K.; et al. Genomic Epidemiology and Recent Update on Nucleic Acid-Based Diagnostics for COVID-19. Curr. Trop. Med. Rep. 2020, 7, 113–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Balbin-Ramon, G.J.; Rabaan, A.A.; Sah, R.; Dhama, K.; Paniz-Mondolfi, A.; Pagliano, P.; Esposito, S. Genomic Epidemiology and its importance in the study of the COVID-19 pandemic. Infez. Med. 2020, 28, 139–142. [Google Scholar]
  38. Aguilar-Martinez, S.L.; Sandoval-Peña, G.A.; Molina-Mora, J.A.; Tsukayama-Cisneros, P.; Díaz-Vélez, C.; Aguilar-Gamboa, F.R.; Bonilla-Aldana, D.K.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J. Genomic and Phylogenetic Characterisation of SARS-CoV-2 Genomes Isolated in Patients from Lambayeque Region, Peru. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2024, 9, 46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Kim, C.Y.; Holroyd, K.B.; Thakur, K.T. Emerging neuroinfectious diseases: Public health implications. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 2025; online ahead of print. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Martos-Benítez, F.D.; Betancourt-Plaza, I.; Osorio-Carmenates, I.; González-Martínez, N.J.; Moráles-Suárez, I.; Peña-García, C.E.; Pérez-Matos, Y.L.; Lestayo-O’Farrill, Z.; de Armas-Fernández, J.R.; Cárdenas-González, R.C.; et al. Neurological Performance and Clinical Outcomes Related to Patients With Oropouche-Associated Guillain-Barré Syndrome. J. Peripher. Nerv. Syst. 2025, 30, e12683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. González-Quevedo, A.; Lestayo O’Farrill, Z.; Mustelier Becquer, R. Oropouche virus-another antecedent event for Guillain-Barré syndrome? Rev. Panam. Salud Publica 2025, 49, e23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Silva, L.B.; Silva, L.L.D.; de Araújo, L.P.; Silva, E.N.; Corsetti, P.P.; de Almeida, L.A. A computational approach for MHC-restricted multi-epitope vaccine design targeting Oropouche virus structural proteins. Acta Trop. 2025, 263, 107575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Vijukumar, A.; Kumar, A.; Kumar, H. Potential therapeutics and vaccines: Current progress and challenges in developing antiviral treatments or vaccines for Oropouche virus. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2025, 111, 116699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table 1. Main epidemiological parameters for comparing Oropouche and Yellow Fever in the Americas during the 2024/2025 epidemics.
Table 1. Main epidemiological parameters for comparing Oropouche and Yellow Fever in the Americas during the 2024/2025 epidemics.
VariableOropoucheYellow Fever
Cases in 2024/202528,320295
Deaths9125
Case Fatality Rates (%)0.0342.37
Affected Countries in the Region146
Availability of VaccineNoYes (17D vaccine)
Availability of Field Serological TestNone availableLimited (cross-reactivity with flaviviruses)
Evidence-Based Clinical Guidelines Published in Peer-Reviewed JournalsNot availableAvailable (e.g., Colombia, 2025)
Main VectorsCulicoides paraensisSylvatic cycle: Haemagogus, Sabethes spp.
Genomic Surveillance ImplementationLimitedIncreasingly applied
Main Reservoir HostUnknown (possibly sloths, primates)Non-human primates
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Sah, R.; Silva-Ramos, C.R.; Pava-Garzón, D.M. Challenges in Emerging and Reemerging Arboviral Diseases: The Examples of Oropouche and Yellow Fever. Pathogens 2025, 14, 621. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14070621

AMA Style

Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Sah R, Silva-Ramos CR, Pava-Garzón DM. Challenges in Emerging and Reemerging Arboviral Diseases: The Examples of Oropouche and Yellow Fever. Pathogens. 2025; 14(7):621. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14070621

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rodriguez-Morales, Alfonso J., Ranjit Sah, Carlos Ramiro Silva-Ramos, and Diana Marcela Pava-Garzón. 2025. "Challenges in Emerging and Reemerging Arboviral Diseases: The Examples of Oropouche and Yellow Fever" Pathogens 14, no. 7: 621. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14070621

APA Style

Rodriguez-Morales, A. J., Sah, R., Silva-Ramos, C. R., & Pava-Garzón, D. M. (2025). Challenges in Emerging and Reemerging Arboviral Diseases: The Examples of Oropouche and Yellow Fever. Pathogens, 14(7), 621. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14070621

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop