Exploring Gender-Based Perceptions of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in the Australian Construction Industry: An Exploratory Mixed-Methods Study

Abstract

This study explores gender-based perceptions of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) within the Australian construction industry, drawing on data from an exploratory mixed-methods investigation of construction practitioners. Australia provides a relevant case context due to sustained national attention to organisational culture, employee well-being, and work–life balance in construction. Adopting an exploratory mixed-methods design, the study integrates survey responses from construction practitioners (n = 40), examined separately for male and female participants, with qualitative analysis of open-ended responses to explore perceptions of workplace culture, leadership opportunities, organisational policies, work–life balance, and technology. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive cross-tabulations and Fisher’s Exact Tests to identify indicative patterns, while qualitative insights provided contextual depth. Given the modest sample size, findings are interpreted descriptively rather than as statistically generalisable. Results indicate broad recognition of progress toward more inclusive workplace practices across both genders, alongside persistent concerns regarding leadership diversity, access to mentoring, and the visibility and communication of flexible work arrangements. Qualitative findings further emphasise the importance of transparent promotion processes, leadership accountability, and organisational support mechanisms in shaping gender-equality experiences. Overall, the study offers exploratory, practitioner-level insights into a sector undergoing gradual cultural transition, highlighting areas for continued organisational and policy attention.

1. Introduction

The construction industry remains one of the most male-dominated sectors globally, and Australia reflects this trend. Despite its economic significance, the industry struggles with gender diversity, particularly in trades and leadership roles [1]. Approximately 1.32 million people are employed in the industry, representing around 9.6% of the national workforce, yet women account for only 18.5% of payroll jobs, the lowest among all industrial sectors [2]. In related professions such as engineering, the gender gap is pronounced: according to Engineers Australia, female representation among office-bearers remains substantially lower than male representation (473 women vs. 1401 men) [3]. The report notes that “gender equity continues to be a challenge in the engineering profession”. These imbalances are of increasing concern given the projected employment growth of 5.8% by 2026, which is expected to exacerbate existing skill shortages if workforce participation remains uneven [4].

Existing literature indicates that women in construction encounter internal barriers such as limited confidence or self-efficacy and external barriers including discrimination, harassment, and a masculine workplace culture [5]. Additional challenges relate to demanding work hours, role conflict, fatigue, and perceptions of technical ability, which disproportionately affect women despite often having equal or higher qualifications than their male counterparts [6,7]. Policies favouring promotion from internally trained skilled workers further disadvantage women entering through tertiary education pathways, creating structural barriers to career progression. While advances in digitalisation and construction technologies have the potential to reduce reliance on physical strength and broaden participation, their impact on gender equality remains underexplored in empirical research [8].

National workforce data reinforce these concerns. According to the Workplace Gender Equality Agency (WGEA), women’s representation declines sharply with increasing seniority across Australian workplaces, which is a pattern described as the “seniority drop-off” [9]. While non-managerial roles are close to gender balanced (52% women, 48% men), only 22% of CEOs and key management personnel are women. In male-dominated industries such as construction, this imbalance is particularly pronounced. Although women in construction are proportionally more likely to hold management positions relative to their share of total employment, their overall numbers remain very low. This persistent under-representation of women in leadership may contribute to predicted skill shortages in the industry [4]. Notably, evidence suggests that men and women demonstrate comparable managerial competence within the construction context [10]. In their study of Swedish construction industry managers, Arditi et al. found no significant difference in 17 out of 20 competencies, concluding that female managers are just as competent as male managers [10]. This underscores that under-representation is not attributable to performance deficits but to systemic and cultural constraints. The study is informed by institutional and social role perspectives, which emphasise how organisational norms, structures, and role expectations shape gendered experiences in male-dominated industries.

The limited presence of female role models and mentors in the Australian construction and engineering industries exacerbates gender inequality, restricting access to professional development, leadership training, and sponsorship opportunities, and reinforcing a male-centric workplace culture [11,12]. Women are less likely than men to access leadership programmes, networking events, or tailored career development initiatives, which can constrain career advancement and contribute to higher attrition rates. Flexible work arrangements, although present in organisational policy, are often underutilised due to entrenched cultural norms, expectations regarding physical presence on-site, and perceived implications for commitment or productivity [13]. Recent progress has seen more women entering managerial roles; however, significant disparities in promotion and visibility persist. Yan, Sunindijo and Wang show that although female managers are increasingly present in the Australian construction industry, their career progression remains slower and less visible compared to male peers, reinforcing structural constraints on leadership advancement [14]. While recent initiatives such as industry taskforces and organisational diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) programmes aim to address these issues, their implementation and effectiveness vary considerably across organisations [15]. Collectively, these findings highlight the persistent structural and cultural barriers that limit women’s full participation and advancement in the sector, reinforcing the need for strategic interventions to address both representation and workplace culture.

While some Australian construction firms (e.g., The National Association of Women In Construction (NAWIC)), the Green Building Council of Australia, Lendlease and Multiplex) have introduced gender equality initiatives [2], the authors note that existing efforts are often limited by a lack of transparency, tailored support and evaluation. Existing research in the Australian construction sector remains largely descriptive or qualitative, with comparatively few studies integrating quantitative and qualitative data to explore how gender equality initiatives are experienced across different organisational roles and career stages [16].

In summary, key barriers to gender equality in the Australian construction industry identified in prior research include:

• Limited awareness of industry-level policies or organisational initiatives aimed at promoting gender equality;
• A predominantly masculine workplace culture in which discriminatory practices may be implicitly tolerated;
• A lack of female role models and mentors due to the under-representation of women in leadership positions;
• Ongoing challenges related to work–life balance and employee well-being, which disproportionately affect women.

To address these identified gaps, the present study adopts an exploratory mixed-methods approach to examine gender-based perceptions of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) among a purposive sample of professionals working within the Australian construction context. Rather than seeking statistical generalisation, the study aims to generate practitioner-level insights into how organisational culture, leadership opportunities, workplace policies, work–life balance, and technology are perceived across genders and career stages. By combining descriptive quantitative comparisons with qualitative accounts, the study offers an illustrative, practice-oriented perspective on how gender equality initiatives and workplace conditions are experienced and identifies areas that may warrant further investigation in larger or more targeted studies.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

This study adopted an exploratory mixed-methods design, consistent with established mixed-methods frameworks that combine quantitative pattern description with qualitative contextualization [17]. The approach was selected to examine gender-based perceptions of DEI among a purposive sample of professionals working within the Australian construction context, where experiential insight and organisational setting are important for understanding complex workplace dynamics. A concurrent design was employed in which descriptive quantitative survey data and qualitative open-ended responses were collected at the same time and analysed in parallel. The quantitative component was used to summarise response patterns across thematic areas, while the qualitative component was used to interpret, nuance, and explain how participants made sense of these issues in practice. Integration occurred at the interpretation stage to provide layered insight across data types, rather than to establish corroboration or triangulation.

2.2. Sampling and Participants

A purposive sampling approach was used in the original data collection, targeting employees and managers within Australian construction firms who possessed relevant industry experience. This approach was selected to ensure representation across early, mid, and late career stages, as well as across a range of organisational roles. A total of 40 participants took part in the study, comprising 21 male and 19 female respondents.

Male participants ranged in age from 18 to 65 years, with qualifications spanning high school to master’s level. Most were full-time employees with more than ten years of industry experience, many holding managerial roles in medium-sized construction firms. Female participants were aged between 18 and 64 years, with approximately half reporting more than ten years of experience. Ten held bachelor’s degrees and six held master’s degrees, and a greater proportion were employed in large organisations. Eleven of the nineteen female participants reported having dependent children.

While the sample size limits representativeness, it is appropriate for an exploratory study aimed at generating indicative, practice-oriented insights rather than statistically generalisable findings. Participant demographic characteristics are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Survey Participants (n = 40).

Characteristic	Category	Male (n = 21)	Female (n = 19)
Age (years)	18–34	5	5
	35–49	8	8
	50–64	6	6
	65+	2	0
Highest qualification	High school	2	1
	Bachelor’s degree	13	10
	Master’s degree	6	6
	Other	0	2
Organisational role	Senior	7	6
	Management role	9	5
	Trades/operational	2	2
	Administrative/other	3	6
Organisation size	Small (<50 employees)	7	4
	Medium (50–200 employees)	11	6
	Large (>200 employees)	3	9
Years in industry	<5 years	4	7
	5–10 years	2	4
	>10 years	15	8
Dependent children	Yes	8	11
	No	13	8
Employment status	Full-time	20	17
	Part-time	1	2

2.3. Data Collection

Data were collected using an online questionnaire administered via Qualtrics, which was selected for its capacity to support secure web-based data collection, maintain respondent anonymity, and manage complex survey logic [18]. The questionnaire comprised 40 items, including a combination of closed-ended questions (dichotomous and Likert-scale items) and open-ended questions.

Survey items were structured around five thematic areas:

• Workplace culture (including health, safety, and flexibility);
• Recruitment, retention, and mentorship toward leadership roles;
• Organisational and industry-level gender equality initiatives;
• Work–life balance and employee well-being;
• The perceived role of technology in advancing gender equality.

Open-ended questions invited participants to elaborate on experiences, perceptions, and suggestions relating to gender equality within the construction sector.

2.4. Quantitative Data Analysis

Quantitative data were analysed using 2 × 2 cross-tabulations comparing male and female respondents across dichotomised response categories (e.g., satisfactory vs. unsatisfactory). Likert-scale responses were dichotomised to facilitate cross-tabulation and to address sparse cell counts. Specifically, responses of agree and strongly agree were grouped into a single affirmative category, while disagree and strongly disagree responses were grouped into a non-affirmative category. Neutral responses were generally ignored except where the inference was clearly affirming or disaffirming of a specific question. This approach is commonly used in exploratory studies with small samples to improve analytical stability and interpretability. Given the small sample size and the presence of low or zero expected cell counts, Fisher’s Exact Test (two-tailed) was employed to examine gender-based associations, as it does not rely on the assumptions required for Pearson’s chi-square tests [19,20]. Effect sizes were reported using Cramer’s V as a descriptive indicator of association strength.

Consistent with the exploratory nature of the study, results were interpreted cautiously, with emphasis placed on observed patterns and effect magnitude rather than statistical inference. Quantitative findings are therefore presented as descriptive trends intended to support contextual interpretation alongside the qualitative results, rather than as evidence of statistically generalisable differences.

2.5. Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data from open-ended survey responses were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis, following an iterative and inductive process [21,22]. Responses were first read in full to achieve familiarisation, after which initial codes were generated inductively to capture recurring concepts and experiences across the dataset.

Coding was conducted iteratively by the research team through repeated engagement with the data. Consistent with reflexive thematic analysis, coding was not treated as a reliability or consensus exercise; rather, codes and themes were refined through reflexive discussion among the authors to enhance analytic clarity, coherence, and grounding in participants’ responses. Candidate themes were reviewed against the full dataset to ensure they captured patterned meaning across participants, and theme definitions were revised where necessary to avoid overextension beyond the data.

To explore gendered perspectives, responses were initially examined separately for male and female participants before being considered collectively to identify overarching themes. Qualitative findings were used to contextualise and enrich the quantitative patterns, providing insight into how organisational policies, workplace culture, and leadership practices are experienced in practice. Verbatim quotations are presented to illustrate how themes are evidenced in participants’ own words.

2.6. Ethics and Data Protection

Ethical review and approval were waived for this study as it involved the retrospective analysis of previously collected, fully de-identified survey data and did not involve direct interaction with human participants. This approach is consistent with institutional and national research ethics guidelines.

Informed consent was waived due to the retrospective nature of the analysis and the absence of identifiable personal information. All data were stored securely and accessed only by the research team.

2.7. Methodological Limitations

Several methodological limitations should be acknowledged when interpreting the findings of this study. First, the small, purposively selected sample limits statistical power and precludes generalisability beyond the specific participants involved. As such, the findings are best understood in terms of transferability rather than representativeness, offering context-specific insights into perceptions within particular construction settings rather than definitive conclusions about the Australian construction sector as a whole. The use of purposive sampling also introduces the potential for sampling bias, particularly given the heterogeneity of roles, organisational contexts, and employment conditions across the construction industry.

Second, the cross-sectional and self-reported nature of the data may be subject to response and recall bias, reflecting participants’ perceptions at a single point in time rather than capturing changes or developments in attitudes over time.

Third, while the mixed-methods design enhances interpretive depth by combining descriptive quantitative patterns with qualitative insights, the qualitative component is based on written open-ended survey responses rather than in-depth interviews or focus groups. Consequently, the qualitative findings are illustrative rather than exhaustive and should be interpreted as providing contextual understanding rather than comprehensive thematic saturation.

Taken together, these limitations reinforce the exploratory and practice-oriented nature of the study. The findings should therefore be interpreted as indicative rather than inferential, highlighting areas for reflection and future inquiry. Further research employing larger and more diverse samples, longitudinal designs, and in-depth qualitative methods would strengthen understanding of gender-based perceptions of diversity, equity, and inclusion in the construction sector. In addition, future studies would benefit from prospective ethics approval and explicit informed consent procedures to support longitudinal and more intensive qualitative investigation.

3. Results

3.1. Quantitative Findings

This section presents quantitative findings from the exploratory survey. Responses are summarised across five thematic areas: (1) workplace culture and safety, (2) recruitment and mentorship toward leadership roles, (3) organisational and industry-level gender equality initiatives, (4) work–life balance and well-being, and (5) technology. Results are presented by gender (male and female respondents). Given the modest sample size and the presence of small cell counts, Fisher’s Exact Test (two-tailed) was used to examine gender-based differences. Effect sizes are reported using Cramer’s V to indicate the magnitude of observed associations. Findings are interpreted cautiously and treated as descriptive trends rather than inferential evidence.

Table 2 presents respondents’ perceptions of workplace culture and safety, including inclusivity, flexibility, comfort in requesting flexible arrangements, and experiences related to harassment and reporting procedures, analysed by gender.

Table 2. Workplace Culture and Safety by Gender.

Item	Gender	Satisfactory	Unsatisfactory	Fisher’s Exact p	Cramer’s V
Inclusivity of workplace culture	Male	16	5	>0.05	0.10
	Female	10	5
Flexibility of workplace policies	Male	13	8	>0.05	0.27
	Female	13	2
Comfort requesting flexibility	Male	16	5	>0.05	0.05
	Female	12	3
Effectiveness of safety and harassment policies	Male	17	3	>0.05	0.01
	Female	12	2
Personal experience of workplace harassment	Male	15	6	>0.05	0.03
	Female	14	5
Familiarity with reporting procedures	Male	16	5	>0.05	0.01
	Female	10	3

Note: Percentages are calculated based on the number of valid responses for each item. Totals may not sum to 100% due to missing responses. Items with zero variance or insufficient response variation were excluded from statistical testing.

Overall, respondents reported higher satisfaction than dissatisfaction across most workplace culture indicators. Fisher’s Exact Tests revealed no statistically significant gender differences (all p > 0.05). A descriptive trend suggested that male respondents were somewhat less satisfied with workplace flexibility than female respondents; however, this difference did not reach statistical significance.

Table 3 summarises gender-based perceptions of recruitment, mentorship, and leadership development, including leadership accessibility, diversity, accountability, and organisational support for women in leadership.

Table 3. Recruitment and Mentorship Toward Leadership Roles by Gender.

Item	Gender	Satisfactory	Unsatisfactory	Fisher’s Exact p	Cramer’s V
Leadership opportunities open to all	Male	17	4	>0.05	0.19
	Female	9	5
Leadership accountability for diversity	Male	17	2	>0.05	0.17
	Female	10	3
Leaders acting on gender equity	Male	15	4	>0.05	0.07
	Female	11	2
Diversity in leadership	Male	18	1	>0.05	0.27
	Female	11	5
Active recruitment and mentorship	Male	17	3	>0.05	0.24
	Female	9	5
Access to mentorship and development	Male	16	7	>0.05	0.18
	Female	12	2
Support for women in leadership	Male	17	3	>0.05	0.17
	Female	10	4

Note: Percentages are calculated based on the number of valid responses for each item. Totals may not sum to 100% due to missing responses. Items with zero variance or insufficient response variation were excluded from statistical testing.

Across recruitment and mentorship indicators, satisfaction generally exceeded dissatisfaction. Fisher’s Exact Tests showed no statistically significant gender differences. Descriptively, female respondents were less likely to perceive leadership diversity as satisfactory, though this pattern remained non-significant.

Table 4 summarises gender-based perceptions of organisational and industry-level gender equality initiatives, including awareness, effectiveness, and access to professional development and maternity-related support.

Table 4. Organisational and industry-level policies and initiatives aimed at promoting gender equality.

Item	Gender	Satisfactory	Unsatisfactory	Fisher’s Exact p	Cramer’s V
Importance of equal access to development	Male	18	3	>0.05	0.10
	Female	12	1
Awareness of policies or initiatives	Male	12	8	>0.05	0.09
	Female	9	4
Effectiveness of initiatives	Male	14	6	>0.05	0.09
	Female	8	5
Evidence of equal access to development	Male	3	17	>0.05	0.19
	Female	4	9
Financial support during maternity leave	Male	9	11	>0.05	0.19
	Female	4	9

Note: Percentages are calculated based on the number of valid responses for each item. Totals may not sum to 100% due to missing responses. Items with zero variance or insufficient response variation were excluded from statistical testing.

While respondents strongly endorsed the importance of equal access to development, dissatisfaction was high regarding tangible evidence of access and financial support during maternity leave. These concerns were shared across genders, with no statistically significant differences observed.

Table 5 presents respondents’ perceptions of work–life balance and well-being within the construction industry. The table summarises views on current work–life balance, the degree of interference between work and personal life, and perceived organisational support for employees’ mental and physical well-being.

Table 5. Work–life balance and well-being.

Item	Gender	Satisfactory	Unsatisfactory	Fisher’s Exact p	Cramer’s V
Current work–life balance	Male	3	16	>0.05	0.01
	Female	2	11
Work–life interference	Male	2	17	>0.05	0.05
	Female	1	12
Organisational well-being support	Male	12	3	>0.05	0.18
	Female	12	1

Note: Percentages are calculated based on the number of valid responses for each item. Totals may not sum to 100% due to missing responses. Items with zero variance or insufficient response variation were excluded from statistical testing.

Both male and female respondents expressed strong dissatisfaction with work–life balance and work–life interference. Perceptions of organisational well-being support were generally positive, with no statistically significant gender differences.

Table 6 summarises respondents’ perceptions of the role of technology in shaping gender equity within the construction industry. Specifically, it reports views on whether technological advancements are expected to reduce physical strength demands and whether technology is perceived as improving opportunities for women.

Table 6. Technology.

Item	Gender	Greater Impact	Lesser Impact	Fisher’s Exact p	Cramer’s V
Technology reducing physical strength demands	Male	11	7	>0.05	0.15
	Female	6	7
Technology improving opportunities for women	Male	18	0	n/a	n/a
	Female	13	0

Note: Percentages are calculated based on the number of valid responses for each item. Totals may not sum to 100% due to missing responses. Items with zero variance or insufficient response variation were excluded from statistical testing. n/a = not applicable, as the statistical test could not be performed due to zero counts in one or more cells (no variability in responses).

Respondents across genders widely agreed that technology has the potential to improve opportunities for women in construction. However, perceptions were more mixed regarding the extent to which technology reduces the importance of physical strength.

Overall, the quantitative comparisons did not indicate consistent gender differentiation across the measured indicators. Most associations were non-significant (p > 0.05) with small effect sizes, suggesting broadly similar response patterns between men and women within this sample. Consistent with the exploratory design of the study, these findings are interpreted as descriptive patterns rather than inferential evidence.

3.2. Qualitative Findings

In addition to the quantitative survey data, respondents were invited to provide open-ended responses reflecting their experiences and perceptions of gender equality while working in Australian construction settings. These qualitative responses were analysed using thematic analysis, following an iterative process of familiarisation, coding, and theme development. Five overarching themes emerged, aligning with the quantitative domains: (1) workplace culture and safety, (2) recruitment and mentorship toward leadership, (3) organisational and industry-level gender equality initiatives, (4) work–life balance and well-being, and (5) technology. The qualitative findings are presented below, with illustrative quotations used to contextualise and deepen interpretation.

3.2.1. Workplace Culture

Respondents reported mixed experiences of workplace inclusivity within the construction and engineering sectors. Several female participants acknowledged positive change, noting that “inclusivity is a priority, and it feels great to be respected and taken seriously as a woman”. At the same time, persistent gender-related challenges were evident. Female respondents frequently described the need to continually demonstrate competence, observing that “women need to prove their value harder than men”, and that “men in high positions [are] finding it hard to accept women in similar or higher roles”.

Structural and cultural factors were commonly identified as contributing to ongoing underrepresentation. These included perceived disparities in pay, limited leadership opportunities, and workplace environments that affected credibility within male-dominated settings. Some respondents also noted challenges related to balancing work and caregiving responsibilities. In particular, the absence of clearly defined progression routes, such as “no clear pathways for women to secure senior roles,” alongside reliance on informal networks, was seen as influencing advancement outcomes. Participants emphasised the importance of leadership commitment, clear policies, and ongoing training in fostering a more inclusive workplace culture.

Male respondents often reported fewer observed issues, with some indicating “none” or “no observed concerns”. Nevertheless, a number acknowledged inappropriate behaviours directed toward women and recognised the influence of entrenched cultural norms. Several emphasised the importance of accountability and leadership action, suggesting organisations should “call out high performers that do not align with company values” and “act faster and more seriously when harassment is reported”. Awareness initiatives, human resources and management training, and communication workshops were also viewed as useful mechanisms for reinforcing respectful workplace behaviours.

Overall, differences in perspective were evident. Male respondents tended to place greater emphasis on workplace culture, accountability, and behavioural standards, while female respondents more strongly highlighted the importance of policy clarity, consistent enforcement, and systemic awareness supported by leadership modelling. Together, these perspectives suggest that continued progress in workplace culture depends on a balance of formal structures and everyday practices, reinforced through visible and consistent leadership commitment.

3.2.2. Recruitment & Mentorship Toward Leadership

Respondents reported generally positive perceptions of progress in gender inclusion within recruitment and leadership development. However, both male and female participants noted that clearly defined pathways toward leadership, particularly for women, remain limited. Female respondents emphasised the importance of visibility and representation, highlighting that being able “to see other females in key roles” helped reinforce the sense that leadership progression is achievable rather than symbolic.

While many organisations were perceived to have formal policies supporting leadership development, their practical impact was sometimes questioned. Several participants observed that “most companies have these policies in place, but they are not necessarily understood by all staff,” suggesting that policy awareness and communication may influence engagement with leadership pathways.

Female respondents commonly highlighted the value of structured mentorship and sponsorship in supporting progression. Suggested initiatives included “leadership courses for middle management level,” negotiation training, and increased access to senior leaders who could provide guidance and advocacy. These forms of support were viewed as important in improving confidence, visibility, and access to leadership opportunities.

Male respondents tended to focus more on existing organisational structures, training, and experiential learning opportunities. Many expressed the view that leadership development pathways already exist but would benefit from clearer communication and more consistent application. This perspective reflects a belief that incremental improvements to current systems may support broader participation in leadership development.

Overall, differences in emphasis were evident. Female respondents more frequently identified challenges related to visibility, access, and mentorship, while male respondents often viewed leadership development as an extension of established organisational practices. Together, these perspectives suggest that continued progress in recruitment and mentorship toward leadership may depend on combining formal structures with targeted support, clear communication, and visible leadership engagement.

3.2.3. Organisational and Industry-Level Policies and Initiatives Promoting Gender Equality

Respondents reported uneven engagement with professional bodies and inconsistent implementation of gender equity initiatives across the construction and engineering sectors. Female respondents, in particular, emphasised the importance of increasing awareness and visibility of existing initiatives, arguing that organisations should more actively communicate their experiences and achievements. One respondent noted that “if organisations or successful policies could speak more about their experience or initiatives, it will create more awareness generally”. Greater visibility was seen as essential to broadening participation and signalling a genuine commitment to gender equality across the industry.

Formal sponsorship programmes and participation in sector-wide initiatives were frequently cited as positive mechanisms for driving accountability. Initiatives such as Champions of Change, which require senior executives to publicly report on gender equity progress, were viewed favourably. In this context, the Australasian Railway Association (ARA) established a Champions of Change Coalition that brings together senior leaders from passenger, freight, and infrastructure organisations to advance gender equality across the rail sector [23]. Respondents perceived such formal commitments as effective in keeping gender equity visible at senior decision-making levels and embedding it within organisational priorities.

Female respondents strongly advocated for the creation of clearer pathways for women and girls to enter and progress within the industry. While recognising progress, several expressed frustration that gender continues to be treated as a point of difference, with one respondent stating, “stop making it a point of difference… why are we still proving ourselves”. The emphasis among women was on normalising participation and leadership rather than positioning advancement as exceptional or symbolic. Establishing structured sponsorship and advancement pathways was seen as critical to supporting sustained career progression.

Male respondents tended to frame gender equality initiatives in terms of policy, recruitment, and training mechanisms. Several noted that gender balance varies considerably across sub-sectors and suggested that organisations with limited progress should be required to justify their position, particularly during recruitment. Recruitment and training programmes were widely viewed as key levers for change, alongside greater industry collaboration through awareness campaigns and professional events. Some male respondents acknowledged cultural resistance, particularly among older workers, which may discourage women from entering or remaining in the industry. However, there was optimism that workforce generational change would contribute to more inclusive environments over time.

Both male and female respondents highlighted the importance of creating environments in which the minority gender feels valued and supported. Suggestions included apprenticeships and sponsorship opportunities, such as funding for women from underrepresented backgrounds to pursue construction management or engineering degrees. Addressing gender pay gaps, adopting gender-neutral standards (particularly in safety practices), and promoting construction careers to young girls were also frequently identified as priority actions.

Across responses, visibility of women in leadership roles emerged as a strong motivator for cultural change. While some male respondents believed gender equity is already adequately supported, many emphasised the need for continued investigation into the underlying causes of imbalance. Collaboration with organisations dedicated to gender equality was proposed as a means of maintaining momentum and fostering industry-wide engagement.

In summary, female respondents placed greater emphasis on awareness, visibility, and structured sponsorship to support advancement and showcase successful women. In contrast, male respondents focused more on policy development, recruitment, training, and cultural change, highlighting systemic issues such as pay inequity and the importance of addressing root causes of gender imbalance across the industry.

3.2.4. Work–Life Balance and Well-Being

Care-giving responsibilities and insufficient organisational support structures continue to limit participation in the construction and engineering sectors. Although most employees, particularly women, perceive their workplaces as supportive of flexible work arrangements, practical and cultural barriers often hinder the full uptake of these policies.

Female respondents often describe their experiences with flexibility positively, noting statements such as “no barriers” and “my employer is very accommodating”. Many have observed notable improvements in recent years, with one noting, “seven years ago it was much harder, easier now”. Despite these advancements, numerous women point to situational limitations, including the necessity to “be on site or attend meetings” and the demands of high workloads.

More significantly, several women reveal underlying perceptual and cultural challenges that affect their comfort in using flexible arrangements. Concerns related to visibility, credibility, and career progression were common, particularly within male-dominated environments. Statements such as “I feel shy to ask” and “working from home would make me invisible” reflect apprehension that flexibility may carry professional penalties. One respondent explained that being absent from the workplace would “undeniably disadvantage my visibility, my inputs, and therefore my credibility”. Others cite manager resistance or the lack of job-share options. Overall, although flexibility policies exist, some women perceive that remote work can subtly disadvantage them compared to their male colleagues who remain physically present.

Male respondents also recognise practical constraints, most notably the nature of construction and site-based work, which “requires being on site” or “working in teams in person”. Several also referenced organisational expectations such as “minimum hours in the office” and acknowledged cultural stigma, with comments including “managers would look down on you for it” and “feeling guilty for asking”. Senior male respondents frequently associate visibility with leadership accountability, stating “leaders need to be present to lead by example”. A number of men acknowledge self-imposed barriers, such as opting not to work flexibly while “growing the business”. For many, the issue is less about policy limitations and more about the norms of presence and leadership visibility within the industry.

Overall, both male and female respondents identified work–life balance challenges as rooted less in formal policy availability and more in entrenched norms surrounding presence, commitment, and leadership visibility. These findings suggest that achieving meaningful flexibility in construction requires not only policy provision but also cultural change to legitimise flexible work practices across roles and career stages.

3.2.5. Technology

Technological advancement was widely perceived as a critical enabler of more inclusive and equitable participation for women in the construction industry. Both male and female respondents consistently emphasised that emerging technologies have the potential to reduce traditional physical barriers and expand access to a wider range of roles. However, respondents stressed that technology alone is insufficient unless accompanied by deliberate capability-building and organisational support. This perspective was reinforced by qualitative comments emphasising the importance of structured training and capability building. As one participant noted, “without proper training, technology just reinforces the same barriers rather than removing them,” highlighting concerns that technological change alone is insufficient without deliberate organisational investment in workforce development.

Across both genders, the most strongly endorsed mechanism for improving equity in technology-enabled construction environments was targeted training and upskilling. Respondents viewed access to structured learning opportunities as fundamental to ensuring that women can fully benefit from digital tools, automation, and technology-driven work practices. This emphasis suggests a shared perception that skill development forms the foundation for meaningful inclusion, rather than relying solely on policy or symbolic initiatives.

Female respondents tended to prioritise capability-building and mentoring pathways, reflecting a desire for practical support that enables confidence, competence, and long-term career progression in technology-related roles. In contrast, male respondents were more likely to also highlight the importance of leadership opportunities and cultural change, including the need to address entrenched attitudes and biases that may limit women’s participation in technology-intensive areas of the industry. Some male participants explicitly noted that without shifts in workplace mindset, particularly among subcontractors and legacy workforce groups, technological advancement may reproduce existing inequalities rather than resolve them.

Overall, these insights indicate that while technological change is broadly viewed as a positive force, its capacity to advance gender equity depends on intentional investment in training, inclusive leadership practices, and cultural transformation. Respondents favoured structured, long-term strategies over ad hoc interventions, reinforcing the view that technology-driven inclusion must be embedded within broader workforce development and organisational change initiatives.

4. Discussion and Recommendations

The contribution of this study lies not in statistical generalisation, but in its integrated, practice-oriented examination of gender equality experiences across multiple organisational dimensions. By combining descriptive quantitative patterns with qualitative accounts of workplace experience, the study offers contextual insight into areas of convergence and tension that are not always visible in single-method or single-theme studies.

Given the exploratory design and the modest, purposively sampled dataset, this discussion is framed as interpretive rather than prescriptive. The findings are presented as illustrative accounts of how diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) issues may be experienced by participants working within the Australian construction context, rather than as evidence of industry-wide conditions.

This section situates the study’s mixed-methods findings within broader structural, cultural, and institutional dynamics identified in national and international literature on gender equality in construction. The implications outlined below are, therefore, offered as areas for reflection and further investigation, rather than definitive recommendations. They draw on two complementary sources: (i) patterns and themes emerging from the survey and qualitative responses, and (ii) existing empirical and policy-oriented research. Recommendations are organised under the same thematic areas presented in the Results section, supporting coherence between the empirical findings and the interpretive discussion.

4.1. Workplace Culture

Workplace culture in the construction industry remains a central barrier to gender equity. Research has shown that masculine norms, informal “rules in use” and systemic behaviours continue to shape occupational culture in ways that make these workplaces unwelcoming to women [24]. In Australia in particular, firms that aim to develop inclusive cultures identify “anti-discriminatory culture” and “shared caring responsibility” as key themes for gender-equity initiatives but acknowledge that cultural gaps remain [2]. A review of women’s experiences further highlights how culture, long working hours and male-dominated environments contribute to women leaving the sector (“leaky pipeline”) [12].

Findings from national and international surveys reinforce and extend these insights: for example, the Engineers Australia report found that about 20% of female engineers reported bullying, harassment or exclusion, and only 55% agreed that women and men have equal opportunities in their workplaces [11], with subsequent national analyses continuing to highlight persistent cultural and structural barriers [25]. In parallel, the Women in the Workplace 2023 report by McKinsey & LeanIn shows that while senior-leadership representation has improved, progress remains weak at middle-manager levels and women continue to face bias and fewer visibility opportunities [26].

The findings of the present study align closely with this literature, while adding exploratory insight into how these issues are perceived and experienced within contemporary Australian construction workplaces. Quantitative patterns indicated overall satisfaction with workplace culture, yet qualitative responses revealed persistent concerns regarding accountability, enforcement of policies, and the consistency of respectful behaviour, particularly on job sites. Several recommendations emerging from participant responses emphasised the establishment of clear protocols for addressing reported concerns, with respondents noting the importance of consistent action and visible leadership commitment (e.g., “implement a protocol that everyone is aware of, ensuring consistent action”). Others stressed the need to foster collaboration rather than competition, to respond decisively to inappropriate behaviour, and to educate men on respectful workplace interactions.

Taken together, these findings suggest that formal policies alone are insufficient unless they are actively enacted and reinforced through everyday leadership practices and organisational norms.

Specific recommendations informed by participant insights:

• Cultivate a collaborative and respectful culture, with visible leadership modelling inclusive behaviours.
• Implement clear and widely communicated policies, with consistent enforcement at all organisational levels.
• Offer regular training and awareness programmes, including guidance on gender-inclusive engagement.
• Provide structured communication workshops designed to enhance dispute resolution and team dynamics.
• Acknowledge and reward employees who exemplify respect and alignment with inclusive company values, thereby contributing to a positive organisational climate.
• Facilitate ongoing diversity training and encourage male allyship initiatives.
• Develop inclusive policies alongside comprehensive reporting mechanisms, monitoring culture as tightly as procedural compliance.

By integrating lived experiences from survey participants with broader empirical evidence, this discussion highlights how cultural change in construction requires both formal governance mechanisms and sustained behavioural reinforcement. Importantly, these recommendations are intended to inform reflective organisational practice rather than serve as definitive prescriptions, with their effectiveness contingent on organisational context and leadership commitment.

4.2. Recruitment and Mentorship Toward Leadership Roles

Recruitment and mentorship are critical pathways for progressing women into leadership roles within the construction industry. Existing research shows that recruitment practices often privilege men through informal networks, assumptions about women’s long-term commitment, and unequal access to career-development opportunities [2,24]. Australian analysis further highlights that women remain an under-utilised resource in construction, despite the sector facing sustained labour shortages and growing demand for skilled leaders [27].

Mentorship is widely used to support women’s career development, yet its effectiveness depends primarily on the quality of the mentor–mentee relationship, including trust, role-modelling and tailored guidance, rather than on matching mentors and mentees by gender [28,29]. Findings from the present study reinforce these insights in an exploratory manner. Quantitative results showed general satisfaction with leadership-related opportunities, while qualitative responses revealed perceived gaps in transparency, access to senior leaders, and the visibility of progression pathways for women. Participants emphasised the importance of leadership-related skill development (e.g., negotiation, communication, compliance, and public speaking) alongside structured exposure to senior decision-makers. Several respondents cautioned that mentoring initiatives risk becoming symbolic when implemented as compliance exercises rather than as meaningful developmental supports. This concern echoes broader critiques in the literature regarding “check-box” diversity programmes that fail to deliver substantive change [29].

Specific recommendations informed by participant insights:

• Set gender-diversity targets and provide women-focused scholarships and apprenticeships
• Establish structured mentorship and sponsorship programmes pairing women with senior leaders (male and female)
• Offer tailored leadership, negotiation and communication training to enhance confidence, credibility and visibility
• Support peer networks to build social capital and reduce professional isolation
• Promote experiential learning and ongoing professional development for all staff
• Deliver joint gender-leadership programmes to foster collaboration and male allyship
• Monitor leadership progression and promotion rates to assess impact over time

Recent industry evidence demonstrates progress: an analysis of gender-diversity initiatives among major Australian construction firms found that 41% of companies reported offering mentoring or coaching programmes, including structured initiatives designed to build women’s leadership capability and strengthen their professional networks [2]. However, the exploratory findings of this study suggest that greater consistency, transparency, and evaluation are required to ensure such initiatives translate into sustained leadership advancement.

4.3. Organisational and Industry-Level Policies and Initiatives Aimed at Promoting Gender Equality

Increasing the visibility of women in leadership roles within the construction industry is essential for inspiring younger women and demonstrating that advancement is achievable at all levels. Visibility has been identified as a key enabler for career aspiration and retention, with role models providing social proof that women can succeed in traditionally male-dominated fields [30]. However, informal institutional norms continue to privilege male-centric narratives, limiting women’s visibility and undermining capability-based promotion [31].

The present study’s findings suggest that, while many organisations have adopted gender-equity policies, awareness, transparency, and evaluation remain uneven. Quantitative results indicated limited awareness of organisational and industry-level initiatives among both male and female respondents, while qualitative responses highlighted the need for clearer communication and greater visibility of successful programmes. At the industry level, collaborative accountability initiatives such as Australia’s Champions of Change initiative demonstrate the value of collective policy action, embedding gender-equality benchmarks and performance reporting across participating organisations. Comparative evidence suggests that without such cross-industry accountability mechanisms, diversity initiatives struggle to overcome entrenched norms [27].

Evidence from broader human resource management research underscores the importance of transparency and consistency in achieving gender pay equity. Ugarte and Rubery found that organisations implementing formal, transparent, and well-communicated human resource management practices, including pay audits, structured promotion criteria, and open reporting, are more successful in narrowing gender pay gaps [32].

Specific recommendations informed by participant insights:

• Expand industry-wide collaborations and initiatives like Champions of Change to maintain accountability.
• Introduce formal sponsorship, mentorship, and apprenticeship programmes targeting women.
• Promote visibility of women in leadership positions to inspire and normalise progression.
• Implement gender-neutral policies, fair recruitment, and equitable pay structures.
• Partner with professional bodies (e.g., NAWIC, Engineers Australia, Green Building Council of Australia) to support benchmarking and sector-wide learning.
• Deliver educational and awareness campaigns to encourage girls and young women to consider construction careers.

These recommendations reflect participant calls for greater consistency and visibility, while acknowledging that policy effectiveness depends on sustained organisational commitment and monitoring.

4.4. Work–Life Balance Initiatives

Work–life balance remains one of the most persistent challenges in the construction industry, particularly in Australia, where long working hours, rigid work schedules, and a deeply ingrained masculine culture have historically limited flexibility [13,33]. National data also show that the construction sector continues to report some of the lowest levels of workplace flexibility and some of the highest gender pay gaps across Australian industries, indicating structural barriers to equality in work–life integration [9].

Findings from the present study align with this evidence, while offering exploratory insight into how flexibility policies are experienced in practice. Quantitative results showed widespread dissatisfaction with the current work–life balance among both male and female respondents, while qualitative responses revealed that cultural norms rather than policy absence often limit uptake. Female participants emphasised the need to enhance flexibility and accessibility in professional development opportunities, suggesting that flexible or online training programmes could enable upskilling outside standard working hours and support work–life integration. Both genders highlighted that visibility norms and leadership expectations continue to privilege physical presence, subtly discouraging flexible work even when formal policies exist.

Specific recommendations informed by participant insights:

• Implement well-being days and flexible work arrangements for all employees, supporting a healthier work–life balance across the workforce.
• Conduct regular workload reviews and role-scoping exercises to ensure responsibilities remain manageable and equitably distributed.
• Encourage supportive leadership practices, including trust-based management, regular check-ins, and open communication.
• Provide training in time management and communication, alongside policies that minimise after-hours communication and promote disconnection from work.
• Introduce incentives such as time-in-lieu or bonuses to recognise and reward employees for maintaining balanced workloads.
• Expand remote and flexible scheduling options to accommodate diverse needs.
• Strengthen family-friendly policies, including on-site childcare and structured return-to-work support.

Collectively, these recommendations suggest that improving work–life balance in construction requires both policy reform and cultural change, particularly around norms of presence and leadership visibility.

4.5. Technology

Emerging technology offers significant potential for advancing gender inclusion within the construction industry by reducing reliance on physical strength and enabling access to digitally mediated roles. Findings from this study indicate strong cross-gender consensus that technology can support inclusion, provided that skill development and organisational support structures evolve concurrently.

Female respondents placed strong emphasis on targeted training and upskilling programmes, indicating that access to relevant education and hands-on experience is viewed as a foundational enabler of inclusive participation in tech-driven roles. Some also highlighted the importance of mentorship and sponsorship programmes, recognising that structured support networks can help women navigate male-dominated spaces and progress into technical and leadership roles. A smaller subset of respondents identified bias in hiring and promotion as an area for improvement, suggesting ongoing concerns about equitable technology-career pathways. Male respondents largely concurred, with over half agreeing that training and upskilling for women is the most impactful step; however, they also gave attention to promoting women’s leadership in technology-driven projects and addressing attitudinal and cultural barriers.

These findings align with recent Australian research, which shows that firms adopting digital tools such as BIM, AI or modular construction recognise the potential for technology to change construction practices; however, the same study observes that less than one fifth of professionals had formal training in emerging technologies and that a mindset of capability development is yet to become widespread [34]. Moreover, broader industry analyses indicate that upskilling women into technology roles is both a gender-equity and productivity imperative, unlocking significant economic value [35].

Specific recommendations informed by participant insights:

• Provide targeted training and upskilling programmes for women.
• Implement initiatives to address attitudinal and cultural resistance to technological change.
• Upskill contractors and subcontractors in the use and benefits of digital construction tools.
• Explore AI-assisted recruitment tools to mitigate bias in hiring and promotion decisions.
• Adopt wearable technologies and smart PPE to support inclusive site environments.
• Leverage cloud-based tools for remote collaboration and digital project management.
• Expand modular construction and automation to reduce physical barriers to participation.

Overall, the recommendations suggest that technology can function as a powerful enabler of gender inclusion only when embedded within broader organisational strategies that prioritise capability development, cultural change, and equitable access.

5. Conclusions

This study indicates that there is some progress toward gender equity, although structural and cultural barriers continue to constrain women’s full participation and advancement. The findings suggest that both male and female respondents recognise improvements in workplace inclusivity, leadership practices, flexible work arrangements, and the potential role of technology. However, ongoing challenges remain, particularly in relation to the visibility of women in leadership roles, awareness and accessibility of gender-equity initiatives, and practical support for work–life balance.

Across the dataset, female participants placed strong emphasis on the importance of mentorship, sponsorship, transparent career pathways, and targeted capability development, while male participants highlighted the role of policy clarity, skill development, and broader cultural change as key enablers of progress. While no statistically significant gender differences were identified, the qualitative findings reveal meaningful experiential contrasts that provide contextual insight into how gender-equity initiatives are perceived and represented in practice.

Emerging technologies were widely viewed as a promising mechanism for reducing physical and logistical barriers traditionally associated with construction work. However, the findings indicate that technological advancement alone is insufficient; its inclusive potential depends on concurrent investment in training, supportive organisational practices, and shifts in cultural norms and leadership expectations. Without these complementary changes, technological adoption risks reinforcing, rather than alleviating, existing inequities.

Overall, this study contributes exploratory, practice-oriented insights into how gender-equity initiatives are experienced within the Australian construction context. While the modest sample size limits statistical generalisation, the integration of quantitative patterns with qualitative perspectives provides a nuanced understanding of the barriers and enablers shaping gender equality in the sector. The findings underscore the importance of sustained leadership commitment, transparent policy implementation, and industry-wide accountability mechanisms in consolidating progress. Future research employing larger and more diverse samples is needed to validate and extend these insights, supporting the development of evidence-based strategies for achieving enduring cultural and structural change in construction workplaces.