Sports

16 pages, 904 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Use of the STRYD^® Power Meter and Its Metrics in Trained Runners: A Systematic Review

by Eugenio Barrios García-Miguel, Carmen Repullo, Teresa Urbina-Gómez and José María González-Ravé

Sports 2026, 14(8), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080364 - 21 Aug 2026

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The STRYD^® power meter has been used by runners and running coaches in recent years. The data it provides may offer useful information for training monitoring and performance assessment. Accordingly, this systematic review identifies and analyzes the use of the main parameters [...] Read more.

The STRYD^® power meter has been used by runners and running coaches in recent years. The data it provides may offer useful information for training monitoring and performance assessment. Accordingly, this systematic review identifies and analyzes the use of the main parameters provided by the STRYD^® power meter in the scientific literature. The PRISMA guidelines were used to identify relevant studies. The search was conducted in the electronic databases PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar. In total, 142 studies were identified. After removing duplicates and assessing the eligibility of the abstracts, 29 studies were included in the systematic review. Eight of the main metrics provided by STRYD^® were analyzed. The total number of times each metric appeared varied widely, as did the number of metrics analyzed in each study. Power output was identified as the most frequently used metric in scientific studies and as the primary variable in the primary objectives sought. Ground contact time and cadence were also used by a high percentage of users, far exceeding the rest: vertical oscillation, flight time, stride length, form power, and stiffness. The study provides coaches and technical staff with guidelines on which variables to use when analyzing runners using STRYD^®. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Endurance Sports Performance: Training, Recovery and Injury-Prevention Strategies)

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16 pages, 1247 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contribution of Aerobic Physiological Variables to 500 m Sprint Kayak Performance in National-Level Athletes: A Hierarchical Regression Analysis

by Apostolos Papandreou, Giorgos Paradisis, Anastassios Philippou and Elias Zacharogiannis

Sports 2026, 14(8), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080363 - 20 Aug 2026

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Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the independent contribution of aerobic physiological variables to 500 m sprint kayak performance in national-level male athletes. Twenty-four male flatwater kayak athletes completed post-intervention physiological and performance assessments following a 6-week training intervention. Sprint performance [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to examine the independent contribution of aerobic physiological variables to 500 m sprint kayak performance in national-level male athletes. Twenty-four male flatwater kayak athletes completed post-intervention physiological and performance assessments following a 6-week training intervention. Sprint performance was assessed using a 500 m kayak ergometer time trial. Pearson correlation and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed after accounting for training-group allocation. Power output at VO₂max (POVO₂max) demonstrated the strongest association with 500 m performance time (r = −0.71, p < 0.001). Hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that training-group allocation explained a small, non-significant proportion of the variance in performance time (R² = 0.082, p = 0.648). The addition of POVO₂max significantly increased the explained variance (R² = 0.708, ΔR² = 0.626, p < 0.001); whereas, VO₂max (ΔR² = 0.012, p = 0.363) and post-exercise blood lactate concentration (ΔR² = 0.004, p = 0.855) did not provide additional explanatory value. These findings indicate that POVO₂max was the strongest independent physiological predictor of 500 m sprint kayak performance after accounting for training-group allocation. Full article

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20 pages, 1650 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute and Short-Term Effects of Real-Time Feedback Neuromuscular Training on Vertical Jump Performance and Reactive Efficiency in Youth Basketball Players

by Alexandra Reta Iacobini, Pierre Joseph de Hillerin and Vlad Adrian Geantă

Sports 2026, 14(8), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080362 - 20 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Real-time feedback-based training has emerged as a potentially time-efficient approach for enhancing neuromuscular performance, yet evidence in youth basketball athletes remains limited. This study examined the acute and short-term effects of a five-day simulator-based neuromuscular training program incorporating real-time feedback on vertical jump [...] Read more.

Real-time feedback-based training has emerged as a potentially time-efficient approach for enhancing neuromuscular performance, yet evidence in youth basketball athletes remains limited. This study examined the acute and short-term effects of a five-day simulator-based neuromuscular training program incorporating real-time feedback on vertical jump performance and reactive efficiency in youth basketball players. A quasi-experimental, single-group repeated-measures design was employed, with performance assessed at three time points: pre-intervention (T1), post-intervention (T2), and 7-day follow-up (T3). Twenty-one male junior athletes (15.1 ± 0.7 years) completed five consecutive sessions on a condition simulation device (ERGOSIM), designed to enhance force control and neuromuscular coordination through real-time visual feedback. Vertical jump performance was assessed using a 15 s repeated jump test (OptoJump), including bilateral and unilateral conditions. Primary outcomes were jump height (H), mean average power (PU), and contact time (CT), analyzed via the MGM-15 method. Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant time effects for bilateral performance: H (F(2,40) = 16.593, p < 0.001, η²_p = 0.453), PU (F(2,40) = 19.281, p < 0.001, η²_p = 0.491), and CT (F(2,40) = 6.009, p = 0.005, η²_p = 0.231). From T1 to T3, bilateral jump height increased by 17.0%, accompanied by a 14.5% increase in average power and a 10.3% reduction in contact time. Unilateral performance improved significantly in both limbs, with progressive reduction in inter-limb asymmetry across the intervention period. Performance gains were largely maintained at T3, indicating short-term retention of neuromuscular adaptations. These findings suggest that simulator-based, feedback-driven neuromuscular training represents a time-efficient strategy for optimizing explosive performance and inter-limb symmetry within competitive microcycles although the single-group design and absence of a control group warrant cautious interpretation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Youth Sport Performance and Athlete Development)

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26 pages, 10360 KB

Open AccessArticle

Trunk Muscle Performance, Spinal Alignment, and Postural Profiles in 9–11-Year-Old Children Participating in Intensively Organized Sport Assessed with Non-Radiographic Tools

by Ivana Sović, Mirela Vučković, Verner Marijančić, Mia Hrlec, Gordana Starčević-Klasan, Tanja Grubić Kezele and Antonio Kokot

Sports 2026, 14(8), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080361 - 19 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Comprehensive data on sagittal spinal alignment, regional mobility, trunk muscle strength and imbalances in 9–11-year-old children participating in intensively organized sport (IOS) are limited. This cross-sectional study evaluated the association between IOS participation and the aforementioned postural parameters, compared with a non-intensive comparison [...] Read more.

Comprehensive data on sagittal spinal alignment, regional mobility, trunk muscle strength and imbalances in 9–11-year-old children participating in intensively organized sport (IOS) are limited. This cross-sectional study evaluated the association between IOS participation and the aforementioned postural parameters, compared with a non-intensive comparison cohort. A total of 143 children were included (IOS: n = 66; controls: n = 77). Sagittal spinal curvatures (thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis) and regional mobility were assessed using Spinal Mouse^®, software-generated sagittal spinal curvature and trunk muscle imbalance profiles were assessed using Moti Physio 3D system, and absolute trunk muscle strength was measured using a K-Push dynamometer. Statistical analyses included multivariable ANCOVA, multivariable ordinal logistic regression, Fisher’s exact tests, and Benjamini–Hochberg (BH) adjustments, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. In adjusted ANCOVA models, the IOS group demonstrated significantly higher absolute trunk flexor (20.1 ± 0.5 vs. 16.8 ± 0.5 kgf) and extensor (25.5 ± 0.5 vs. 22.7 ± 0.5 kgf) strength than controls (both p < 0.001), independent of demographic and anthropometric covariates. At the univariate level, the comparison group showed a significantly higher prevalence of software-classified weakness of the m. rectus abdominis (88.3% vs. 72.7%; BH-adjusted p = 0.05) and tightness of the m. psoas major (96.1% vs. 83.3%; BH-adjusted p = 0.05). In contrast, sagittal spinal curvatures and mobility did not differ between groups. After BH adjustment, m. quadratus lumborum differences showed only a non-significant trend (BH-adjusted p = 0.06). Structural parameters were mainly associated with biological factors: age showed an independent association with lumbar lordosis severity (BH-adjusted p = 0.03), whereas sex was independently associated with thoracic (BH-adjusted p = 0.01) and lumbar spine mobility (BH-adjusted p = 0.03). In summary, IOS participation in children aged 9–11 years is associated with greater absolute trunk strength, whereas structural sagittal spinal profiles and software-based muscle-imbalance classifications appear to be driven primarily by age and sex. These findings support integrating non-invasive posture screening with trunk strength assessment when monitoring young athletes and planning developmentally appropriate exercise interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interventions to Increase Physical Activity and Measurements to Evaluate Performance in Children and Adolescents)

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18 pages, 645 KB

Open AccessReview

Artificial Intelligence and Psychophysiological Monitoring for Integrated Performance Modeling in Elite Soccer: A Scoping Review of Applications, Evidence Gaps, and Translational Challenges

by Ismail Dergaa, Wissem Dhahbi, Mohamed Amine Dergaa, Mortadha Razzak, Halil İbrahim Ceylan, Valentina Stefanica, Raul Ioan Muntean and Noomen Guelmami

Sports 2026, 14(8), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080360 - 19 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Background: Elite soccer performance emerges from the interplay of cognitive, emotional, psychophysiological, and tactical processes that operate in real time during matches. Advances in wearable sensors and artificial intelligence (AI) now allow continuous monitoring of physiological and psychological states. They also allow modeling [...] Read more.

Background: Elite soccer performance emerges from the interplay of cognitive, emotional, psychophysiological, and tactical processes that operate in real time during matches. Advances in wearable sensors and artificial intelligence (AI) now allow continuous monitoring of physiological and psychological states. They also allow modeling of how these states relate to tactical and physical performance. Existing reviews have examined machine learning in soccer, heart rate variability (HRV) monitoring, and psychological determinants of performance separately. No scoping review has mapped the intersection of AI analytics, wearable psychophysiological monitoring, and psychological performance constructs as one integrated decision-support framework in elite soccer. Aim: The aim of this study was to map the available evidence on the integration of AI and machine learning with psychophysiological monitoring for performance modeling in elite soccer, to identify the psychological constructs already used as model inputs, to describe the wearable technologies and AI methods applied, and to set out the translational challenges and evidence gaps that need priority attention. Methods: The review followed the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) and the updated Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology. The protocol was registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF). Six databases (PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, IEEE Xplore, and PsycINFO) were searched from January 2000 to March 2026 using the Population–Concept–Context (PCC) framework. Two reviewers independently screened titles, abstracts, and full texts (Cohen’s kappa = 0.82). Results: Thirty-six sources met the eligibility criteria after screening of 3104 records. AI and machine learning have been applied widely to predict physical and tactical performance in soccer, yet they rarely include psychological constructs. Reported models (decision trees, gradient boosting, and artificial neural networks) reach high accuracy for physical outcomes in internal validation, for example, above 66% for injury risk. Multi-modal models that add physiological and psychological inputs report stronger prediction. These figures come mostly from internal validation, and external validation and overfitting controls are seldom reported, so they should be read as optimistic upper bounds. Psychological and psychophysiological inputs remain under-represented. Explainable AI (XAI) methods, in particular Shapley Addictive exPlanations (SHAP) values, are appearing, but validation with domain experts is scarce. HRV has been reviewed as a psychophysiological marker in soccer, yet its use within AI decision-support tools for real-time psychological readiness has not been mapped. Three translational challenges stand out: the ecological validity gap between laboratory cognitive tests and match-embedded psychophysiology; the interpretability problem of opaque AI in high-stakes decisions; and the data fragmentation problem created by disconnected physical, tactical, and psychological data streams. Conclusions: Integrating AI with wearable psychophysiological monitoring offers a credible route toward integrated performance modeling in elite soccer. Closing this gap calls for multi-modal frameworks that combine psychological constructs, physiological markers, and tactical data within explainable AI. Research priorities include ecologically valid psychophysiological assessment protocols, position-specific psychological profiling, and practitioner-validated tools that turn AI outputs into usable coaching recommendations. Full article

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20 pages, 1499 KB

Open AccessArticle

Progressive Resistance Exercise Training and Physical and Behavioural Health Components in Adults with Intellectual Disabilities: A Repeated Time-Series Design

by Kirsten I. de Oude, Roy G. Elbers, Alyt Oppewal and Dederieke A. M. Maes-Festen

Sports 2026, 14(8), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080359 - 19 Aug 2026

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Abstract

This study, part of the PRET-study (NCT06579898), investigated changes in body composition, physical fitness, sarcopenia, activities of daily living (ADL), challenging behaviour, and falls in adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) following participation in a 24-week progressive resistance exercise training (PRET) intervention. A repeated-time-series [...] Read more.

This study, part of the PRET-study (NCT06579898), investigated changes in body composition, physical fitness, sarcopenia, activities of daily living (ADL), challenging behaviour, and falls in adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) following participation in a 24-week progressive resistance exercise training (PRET) intervention. A repeated-time-series design with one study group was used. We used multilevel linear regression models and non-parametric tests to investigate changes in body composition (bioelectrical impedance), physical fitness (ID-fitscan), sarcopenia, ADL (Barthel Index, Lawton IADL scale), challenging behaviour (Aberrant Behaviour Checklist), and falls. Thirty-six adults with mild to moderate ID (mean age: 55.6 ± 12.9 years; 52.8% male) participated and 26 completed the intervention. Intention-to-treat and per-protocol analyses showed statistically significant improvements in physical fitness and challenging behaviour. As these analyses concerned multiple secondary outcomes from a study powered for cardiovascular risk factors, these findings should be considered exploratory. Intention-to-treat analyses showed improvements in the five-times chair stand (−2.40 s, 95% CI [−4.06; −0.75]), and reductions in irritability (−1.10, 95% CI [−2.21; −0.00]) and inappropriate speech (−0.75, 95% CI [−1.22; −0.28]). No statistically significant changes were observed for body composition, ADL, or falls and no cases of sarcopenia were identified. The findings suggest that participation in PRET may be associated with improvements in lower body functional muscular endurance and challenging behaviour. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Importance of Exercise for People with Disabilities: From Assessment to Intervention and Inclusion)

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17 pages, 3558 KB

Open AccessArticle

by Eva Åkerman, Taru Tervo and Marie Klingberg-Allvin

Sports 2026, 14(8), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080358 - 18 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the impact of menstrual symptoms on sport participation and management strategies among adolescent girls playing floorball in Sweden. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among floorball players aged 12–18 years (n = 545). Logistic regression was [...] Read more.

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the impact of menstrual symptoms on sport participation and management strategies among adolescent girls playing floorball in Sweden. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among floorball players aged 12–18 years (n = 545). Logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with menstrual-related symptoms and their impact on participation and absence from training sessions or matches. Results: Menstrual pain (89.6%) and mood swings (81.9%) were the most commonly reported symptoms. Symptoms such as menstrual pain, heavy menstrual bleeding, headache, fatigue, dizziness, and concentration difficulties were more prevalent among participants with early menarche (≤11 years) than those with later menarche. Overall, about 62.2% perceived that their menstrual symptoms affected their training and matches. Early menarche (≤11 years) was associated with nearly three times higher odds of refraining from training sessions or matches. Despite substantial impact, healthcare-seeking and communication with coaches were limited. Conclusions: Given the high prevalence of menstrual symptoms and their impact on sport participation and experiences, menstrual health should be recognised as a core component of athlete well-being in youth sport. Efforts are needed to improve menstrual health awareness, early identification of girls with high symptom burden, and supportive sport environments to promote gender equality in youth sport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wellbeing, Health, and Performance in Sport and Physical Activity: Individual, Organisational, and Societal Perspectives)

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13 pages, 3667 KB

Open AccessArticle

Clinical, Functional, and Ultrasonographic Assessment of the Shoulder–Elbow Complex in Padel Players with Lateral Elbow Tendinopathy: A Pilot Observational Study

by Luis Morales-Rodríguez-Parets, Maria Gabriela Cortiguera and Blanca De-la-Cruz-Torres

Sports 2026, 14(8), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080357 - 18 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Introduction: Lateral elbow pain (LEP) is traditionally considered a local tendinopathy; however, emerging evidence suggests that proximal shoulder function and kinetic chain adaptations may contribute to its development in overhead and racquet sport athletes such as padel players. This study compared shoulder strength, [...] Read more.

Introduction: Lateral elbow pain (LEP) is traditionally considered a local tendinopathy; however, emerging evidence suggests that proximal shoulder function and kinetic chain adaptations may contribute to its development in overhead and racquet sport athletes such as padel players. This study compared shoulder strength, neuromuscular activation, elbow tendon morphology, and grip strength between padel players with lateral elbow pain and healthy controls, and between pain and non-pain sides within the symptomatic group. Methods: A pilot study was conducted in padel players with unilateral LEP and matched healthy controls. Assessments included isometric shoulder internal and external rotator (IR/ER) strength, glenohumeral rotational range of motion, electromyographic activity (infraspinatus/deltoid posterior and upper trapezius/lower trapezius ratios), grip strength, and ultrasound evaluation of infraspinatus and common extensor tendon thickness. Results: No significant differences were observed between groups or sides in shoulder strength, IR/ER ratios, electromyographic activity, or grip strength (all p > 0.05). The symptomatic group showed greater infraspinatus muscle thickness than controls. Within the symptomatic group, the pain side demonstrated reduced glenohumeral IR (p = 0.04) and increased common extensor tendon thickness (p = 0.02–0.05). Conclusions: Padel players with LEP demonstrated largely preserved neuromuscular and strength profiles. However, reduced shoulder IR and increased tendon thickness suggest proximal mobility alterations and local tendon adaptations, supporting a kinetic chain interpretation of lateral elbow pain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Prevention and Rehabilitation of Training Injuries)

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23 pages, 548 KB

Open AccessReview

Methods Used to Assess Physical Abilities in Police Students: A Scoping Review

by Emilia Martinsson, Haris Pojskic, Anna Hafsteinsson Östenberg and Jesper Augustsson

Sports 2026, 14(8), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080356 - 18 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Physical ability testing is an essential part of police education, as fitness assessments indicate students’ preparedness for police work. Clear documentation and reporting of test protocols and measurement properties are essential for interpreting, evaluating, and comparing the usefulness of different test batteries. Therefore, [...] Read more.

Physical ability testing is an essential part of police education, as fitness assessments indicate students’ preparedness for police work. Clear documentation and reporting of test protocols and measurement properties are essential for interpreting, evaluating, and comparing the usefulness of different test batteries. Therefore, this scoping review aimed to map the fitness tests used in police education programs internationally, including reporting standards of test protocols, reliability, validity, and sex-based test specificity, thereby providing insight into the physical abilities considered important for police work. The main searches were conducted in the databases CINAHL, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science. The database search yielded 1323 articles, of which 92 met the inclusion criteria. An additional nine articles were included through citation and hand searching. Of the 101 studies, 95 used an average of 4–5 general fitness tests, and 29 included work-related police tests. Test protocols were generally well documented across studies. However, only a few studies included in this review assessed test–retest reliability, and only a limited number of studies, whose primary aim was to validate the tests, evaluated test validity. The most commonly used assessments were upper-body and core muscular endurance (60 s push-up, maximum pull-up, and 60 s sit-up tests), upper-body muscular strength (hand-grip test), lower-body power (standing long jump, and vertical jump tests), and aerobic capacity (20 m multistage fitness, 2400 m Cooper, and 12 min Cooper tests. Only 19 studies reported sex-specific performance standards, including differences in test execution, scoring systems, VO_2max estimation, or time limits. The findings indicate that tests of upper-body muscular endurance and strength, lower-body power, and aerobic capacity are among the most frequently measured physical abilities in police education programs internationally, while also highlighting the need for more standardized reporting of test protocols, reliability, and validity. Full article

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21 pages, 358 KB

Open AccessReview

Anatomical Variants of the Cervical Spine and Sports-Related Injury in Athletes: A Narrative Review

by Juan Alberto Sanchis-Gimeno, Alejandro Bruna-Mejías, Mathias Orellana-Donoso, Juan José Valenzuela-Fuenzalida, Gustavo Oyanedel-Amaro and José Eduardo León-Rojas

Sports 2026, 14(8), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080355 - 18 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Congenital and developmental cervical spine variants, as well as acquired or sport-adapted cervical morphologies, may alter canal reserve, segmental stability, foraminal dimensions, and the cervicothoracic outlet in athletes. This narrative review aimed to integrate the anatomically and methodologically heterogeneous literature linking these findings [...] Read more.

Congenital and developmental cervical spine variants, as well as acquired or sport-adapted cervical morphologies, may alter canal reserve, segmental stability, foraminal dimensions, and the cervicothoracic outlet in athletes. This narrative review aimed to integrate the anatomically and methodologically heterogeneous literature linking these findings with sports-related injury and return-to-play decisions. PubMed/MEDLINE was searched from database inception through 6 July 2026 using controlled vocabulary and free-text terms for cervical anatomy, specific variants, athletic exposure, neurological syndromes, injury mechanisms, and return to sport; reference lists of relevant publications were also examined. English-language human studies were selected for direct anatomical, biomechanical, clinical, or athlete relevance and synthesized by evidence type, mechanism, vertebral level, and sport. The strongest athlete-specific evidence concerned developmental or functional cervical stenosis, space available for the cord, cervical cord neurapraxia, transient quadriparesis, and stingers in collision sports. Evidence for atlas arch defects, os odontoideum, Klippel–Feil syndrome, cervical spondylolysis, and cervical rib-related thoracic outlet syndrome was predominantly case-based or derived from expert guidance. These findings support cautious, individualized interpretation rather than universal clearance rules. Clinical assessment should integrate symptoms, neurological findings, imaging, dynamic stability, recurrence, and sport-specific exposure while recognizing that prospective athlete-specific evidence remains limited. Full article

17 pages, 2074 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Structural, Functional, and Biochemical Responses to a High- and Low-Volume Foam Rolling Exercise on the Hamstring Muscles: A Randomized Controlled Trial

by Jakob Hofer, David G. Behm, Masatoshi Nakamura and Andreas Konrad

Sports 2026, 14(8), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080354 - 17 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Foam rolling (FR) is widely used to acutely enhance range of motion, yet the influence of different application volumes on neuromuscular, structural, and biochemical responses remains unclear. This study investigated the acute effects of low- and high-volume hamstrings FR interventions. Fifty-seven healthy male [...] Read more.

Foam rolling (FR) is widely used to acutely enhance range of motion, yet the influence of different application volumes on neuromuscular, structural, and biochemical responses remains unclear. This study investigated the acute effects of low- and high-volume hamstrings FR interventions. Fifty-seven healthy male participants were randomly assigned to a high-volume FR group (IG10; 10 min per posterior thigh), a low-volume FR group (IG2; 2 min per posterior thigh), or a control group (CG; 20 min rest). Pre- and post-intervention assessments included sit-and-reach (SAR) performance, shoulder circumduction (SC) (mobility), maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), biceps femoris muscle stiffness (MS), and creatine kinase (CK) levels. Linear mixed-effects models revealed significant Time effects for SAR performance and SC, as well as a Group effect for SC (p < 0.05), whereas no significant Group × Time interactions were observed for any outcome (all p > 0.05). Significant improvements in SC were observed in both intervention groups compared with the CG, whereas no differences were detected between the two intervention durations. In contrast, no differential effects were observed for MS, maximal strength, or CK concentrations between the intervention groups, indicating that extending the FR duration from 2 to 10 min did not provide additional acute benefits. Full article

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15 pages, 2834 KB

Open AccessArticle

Neuromuscular Activation Strategies of the Lower Limb During Maximal Sprinting in Youth Track and Field Athletes: Age-Related Differences and Implications for Talent Identification

by Gaku Kakehata, Tuncay Örs, Sofyan Sahrom and Chee Yong Low

Sports 2026, 14(8), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080353 - 17 Aug 2026

Viewed by 410

Abstract

Sprint performance improves throughout adolescence as a result of both structural and neuromuscular development. In particular, increases in body height, lower limb length, and muscle volume have been consistently linked to improvements in sprint performance. However, allometric scaling of force, speed, and power [...] Read more.

Sprint performance improves throughout adolescence as a result of both structural and neuromuscular development. In particular, increases in body height, lower limb length, and muscle volume have been consistently linked to improvements in sprint performance. However, allometric scaling of force, speed, and power remain lower in adolescents compared to adults even after structural differences are accounted for, implicating neural factors as independent contributors to performance development. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in neuromuscular activation patterns of the lower limb muscles during maximal sprinting between youth male athletes across two age groups (U19: 17–19 years; U16: 13–16 years). Eighteen athletes performed a 50 m maximal sprint. Spatiotemporal variables (running speed, step frequency, step length) were measured over 30–50 m using a high-speed camera (240 Hz) and timing gates. Electromyographic (EMG) signals were recorded simultaneously from ten lower limb muscles using wireless EMG sensors (2000 Hz): rectus femoris (RF), biceps femoris (BF), semitendinosus (ST), gluteus maximus (Gmax), gluteus medius (Gmed), vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM), tibialis anterior (TA), gastrocnemius (GAS), and soleus (SOL). Root mean square (RMS) amplitude was calculated across four gait phases (contact, early-swing, mid-swing, late-swing) and normalised to maximal voluntary Isometric contraction (%MVIC). The U19 group demonstrated significantly greater running speed (U19: 9.49 ± 0.39 vs. U16: 8.67 ± 0.25 m·s⁻¹, p < 0.001), step frequency (U19: 4.49 ± 0.12 vs. U16: 4.35 ± 0.16 Hz, p = 0.004), and step length (U19: 2.12 ± 0.12 vs. U16: 1.99 ± 0.06 m, p = 0.010) than U16. The overall pattern of lower limb muscle activation across the gait cycle was broadly similar between groups; however, a significant group × phase interaction was observed for RF (p = 0.003, F = 5.257, η² = 0.247), with post hoc analysis revealing greater RF activation during early swing in U19 (p = 0.033). These findings may indicate that sprint-specific training in youth athletes is associated with not only structural but also neuromuscular differences, specifically reflecting enhanced RF recruitment during the phase-critical moment of early swing—a window in which high-threshold motor unit activation is most mechanically decisive. EMG-based assessment of hip flexor activation during maximal sprinting may provide a complementary tool, pending further validation, for talent identification and training prescription in youth track and field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 2107 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical and Developmental Characteristics of Elite Under-19 Female Cricketers: Positional Differences, Relative Age Effects, and Maturity

by Sibi Walter, Gregory King, Harrison Jones-Park, Dayle Shackel, Ben Ramsay and Elena Moltchanova

Sports 2026, 14(8), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080352 - 17 Aug 2026

Viewed by 643

Abstract

Background: Women’s cricket is rapidly expanding at the elite youth level, yet limited research has comprehensively examined the physical, positional, and developmental characteristics underpinning performance in elite under-19 (U19) female players. In particular, the role of biological maturation and relative age effects in [...] Read more.

Background: Women’s cricket is rapidly expanding at the elite youth level, yet limited research has comprehensively examined the physical, positional, and developmental characteristics underpinning performance in elite under-19 (U19) female players. In particular, the role of biological maturation and relative age effects in shaping physical performance within this population remains poorly understood. Objective: This study aimed to characterise the anthropometric and physical profile of elite U19 female cricketers, examine positional differences, assess the presence of relative age effects (RAE), and evaluate the applicability of maturity offset estimation in this cohort. Methods: Ninety elite U19 female cricketers representing six regional high school teams were assessed using a cross-sectional design. Anthropometric measures, strength, power, sprint performance, and agility were evaluated. Maturity status was estimated using both the original and modified maturity offset equations, and birth quartiles were used to assess RAE via a chi-squared test. Between-group differences were analysed using ANOVA. Results: Statistically significant positional differences were observed for vertical jump, isometric strength, and sprint performance (p < 0.05), with spin bowlers demonstrating lower power and slower sprint times, and seam bowlers exhibiting greater maximal strength. No differences were observed in anthropometry or agility. Birth quartile distribution was relatively uniform, indicating no clear RAE. Maturity offset estimates indicated that players were well beyond peak height velocity; however, both original and modified estimates demonstrated limited variability and a tendency to overestimate maturity timing in this cohort. Conclusions: Elite U19 female cricketers demonstrate role-specific physical profiles driven primarily by strength, power, and speed rather than anthropometry or maturity status. The absence of a clear RAE and limited applicability of maturity offset methods highlight the need for performance-based, position-specific approaches to training and talent identification in female cricket. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth: 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 1358 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Multi-Biomarker Perspective on Acute Exercise: Differential Orexin, Alpha-Amylase, and Cortisol Responses Across Modalities

by Fiorenzo Moscatelli, Vincenzo Monda, Marco La Marra, Antonietta Messina, Antonietta Monda, Maria Casillo, Nicola Mancini, Girolamo Di Maio, Gabriella Marsala, Giovanni Messina and Rita Polito

Sports 2026, 14(8), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080351 - 13 Aug 2026

Viewed by 337

Abstract

Purpose: Acute exercise elicits coordinated neuroendocrine and autonomic responses that are strongly influenced by exercise modality and intensity. While cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase are widely used as peripheral indicators of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system activation, respectively, salivary orexin remains an [...] Read more.

Purpose: Acute exercise elicits coordinated neuroendocrine and autonomic responses that are strongly influenced by exercise modality and intensity. While cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase are widely used as peripheral indicators of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system activation, respectively, salivary orexin remains an exploratory biomarker whose relationship with central orexinergic activity is not yet fully established, particularly in response to different exercise conditions. This study aimed to compare the acute salivary responses of orexin, alpha-amylase, and cortisol following distinct exercise modalities characterized by different physiological loads. Methods: A repeated-measures design was employed in a sample of physically active young women. Each participant completed four experimental sessions: high-intensity interval training (HIIT), combined exercise (CE), moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT), and yoga. Saliva samples were collected at baseline (T0), immediately post-exercise (T1), and during early recovery (T2 and T3). Biomarker concentrations were analyzed to assess temporal dynamics and modality-dependent differences. Results: All biomarkers showed modality-dependent responses. HIIT elicited the most pronounced increases in alpha-amylase and cortisol, reflecting robust sympathetic and HPA axis activation, whereas CE and MICT induced more moderate responses. Yoga was associated with minimal changes across all biomarkers. Orexin displayed a graded response across the exercise modalities, with higher post-exercise levels observed following HIIT compared to lower-intensity conditions. Temporal analyses revealed distinct kinetic profiles, with alpha-amylase peaking rapidly in the early post-exercise phase, whereas cortisol exhibited a more delayed response. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that acute salivary responses of orexin, alpha-amylase, and cortisol are strongly modulated by exercise modality, supporting the importance of an integrated, multi-biomarker approach to characterize the physiological response to exercise. The inclusion of salivary orexin provides exploratory information on a potentially relevant arousal- and energy-regulation-related pathway, complementing established peripheral markers of autonomic and endocrine activation. This integrated perspective may contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of exercise-induced stress responses in young women. Full article

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21 pages, 2661 KB

Open AccessArticle

Basketball Players Jump and Maximal Strength Performance Improvements After French Contrast Training

by Yiqing Xie, Yemin Han, Qing Du, Zhen Zhang, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo and Kai Xu

Sports 2026, 14(8), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080350 - 12 Aug 2026

Viewed by 555

Abstract

(1) Background: French contrast training (FCT) enhances sports performance, but its long-term efficacy in elite basketball players remains unclear. This study compared FCT and traditional strength training (TST) on jump performance and lower-limb strength. (2) Methods: Sixteen elite basketball players (age 22.4 ± [...] Read more.

(1) Background: French contrast training (FCT) enhances sports performance, but its long-term efficacy in elite basketball players remains unclear. This study compared FCT and traditional strength training (TST) on jump performance and lower-limb strength. (2) Methods: Sixteen elite basketball players (age 22.4 ± 1.4 years; 14 male, 2 female) were randomly assigned to 8 weeks of FCT (n = 8) or TST (n = 8). The TST protocol consisted of barbell back squat, barbell Bulgarian split squat, conventional deadlift, and barbell hip thrust (4 sets of 8, 6, 4, 4 repetitions at 80%, 95%, 90%, 90% of one-repetition maximum [1RM]; 2–3 min inter-set rest). Assessments included countermovement jump (CMJ) kinetics, CMJ with arm swing (CMJA), running CMJ, running single-leg CMJ, and back squat 1RM, analyzed via repeated-measures ANOVA. (3) Results: A significant Group × Time interaction favored FCT for maximal relative force (p = 0.007, ηp² = 0.41): FCT increased 6.80% (Cohen’s d = 1.55), TST decreased 2.41% (d = −0.36). Significant time effects (p < 0.001–0.044) occurred for CMJA, running CMJ, flight height, reactive strength index, and back squat 1RM, with large improvements in both groups (e.g., back squat 1RM: FCT +30.45%, d = 2.89; TST +26.77%, d = 2.34). The interaction for average power approached significance (p = 0.053, ηp² = 0.24). No other interactions were significant. (4) Conclusions: Both FCT and TST improved performance, but FCT yielded superior gains in maximal relative force. Limitations include small sample (n = 16), mixed-gender composition, short 8-week intervention, and lack of retention testing. Full article

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24 pages, 4878 KB

Open AccessReview

Mapping Scientific Knowledge on Body Composition and Anthropometry in Soccer: A Bibliometric Analysis of the Last 35 Years (1990–2025)

by Juan David Paucar-Uribe, Boryi A. Becerra-Patiño, Aura D. Montenegro-Bonilla, Armando Monterrosa-Quintero, Jorge Olivares-Arancibia, Daniel Rojas-Valverde, Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda and José Francisco López-Gil

Sports 2026, 14(8), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080349 - 12 Aug 2026

Viewed by 409

Abstract

Background: Anthropometric analysis has become a key tool for analyzing body composition to assess, monitor, and track structural changes in soccer players. Objective: The objective of this study was to analyze the scientific literature on body composition and anthropometry in soccer using a [...] Read more.

Background: Anthropometric analysis has become a key tool for analyzing body composition to assess, monitor, and track structural changes in soccer players. Objective: The objective of this study was to analyze the scientific literature on body composition and anthropometry in soccer using a bibliometric analysis. Material and Methods: The following databases were consulted: Scopus, Web of Science (WoS), PubMed (Medline), SportDiscus, and the ScienceDirect publishing platform. The study included documents published between 1990 and 2025. Data was selected following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines statement flowchart and subsequently analyzed using Bibliometrix and R software to identify keywords, frequency of occurrence, journal analysis, countries, and other bibliometric indicators. Results: A total of 384 documents met the inclusion criteria. Spain, Italy, Brazil and Portugal stand out as the countries with the highest output. These countries are associated with the most representative authors, led by Suarez-Arrones, L; Nikolaidis, PT; and Campa, F., who are in turn associated with the most representative concepts: “Male”, “Adolescent” and “Athletic performance”. The most prevalent concepts are population-based: “Adolescent” and “Young adult”. The top three organizations in terms of contributing to the scientific study of body composition and anthropometry were the University of the Basque Country, Pablo de Olavide University, and the University of Coimbra. It can be observed that most of the literature has focused on youth (29.16% of the total documents), followed by elite players (22.91%) and professionals (14.84%), where the focus is on those aged 14 to 19 years and playing at highly competitive levels, seeking peak performance. Conclusions: Methodological heterogeneity in evaluation protocols constitutes the main structural shortcoming in this field: 32.29% of studies do not specify their protocols, which compromises the comparability of the results. The widespread adoption of international standards, such as the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) methodology, along with a requirement to indicate the instrument used and the evaluator’s certification level, is a priority for improving the quality of scientific communication in future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Composition Assessment for Sports Performance and Athlete Health)

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20 pages, 5236 KB

Open AccessReview

Methods and Systems of Resistance Training: A Narrative Review Based on Contemporary Recommendations

by Manoel J. Rios, Francisco A. Ferreira, Dale W. Chapman, Ricardo J. Fernandes and Victor Machado Reis

Sports 2026, 14(8), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080348 - 11 Aug 2026

Viewed by 5968

Abstract

The purpose of this narrative review was to provide a conceptual and applied framework that distinguishes resistance training methods, strategies, and systems and clarifies how these constructs organize established training variables within contemporary recommendations for exercise prescription. The historical, conceptual, and theoretical synthesis [...] Read more.

The purpose of this narrative review was to provide a conceptual and applied framework that distinguishes resistance training methods, strategies, and systems and clarifies how these constructs organize established training variables within contemporary recommendations for exercise prescription. The historical, conceptual, and theoretical synthesis was not restricted by publication date and included seminal studies and previous evidence syntheses. In addition, a focused descriptive mapping of primary experimental studies published between January 2021 and April 2026 was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. This mapping comprised 40 studies assessing acute responses or chronic adaptations to methods including drop sets, rest–pause, pyramidal loading, eccentric training, blood flow restriction, cluster sets, and velocity-based training. Several studies reported no statistically significant between-method differences in selected strength or hypertrophy outcomes; however, their generally small samples and the absence of equivalence or non-inferiority analyses preclude conclusions of true equivalence. Individual studies also reported context-specific differences in session efficiency, fatigue distribution, movement velocity, regional hypertrophy, and contraction-specific adaptations. Given the heterogeneity of the mapped studies and the absence of formal risk-of-bias or certainty-of-evidence assessments, these observations should be interpreted as descriptive and exploratory rather than as evidence of general comparative superiority. Taken together with the broader historical and synthesized literature, the findings suggest that resistance training adaptations are primarily governed by foundational prescription variables, including load, volume, frequency, effort, density, and exercise selection. The principal contribution of this review is therefore to clarify how methods, strategies, and systems can be selected and organized according to specific goals, individual characteristics, and practical constraints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength Training and Muscular Adaptation: Implications for Health and Performance)

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17 pages, 2459 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of Forefoot Wedges on Concentric Power Output During Loaded Back Squats in Elite Female Handball Players: A Randomized Crossover Study

by Álvaro Gómez-del Pino, Laura Carrasco-Fernández, Javier Benítez-Porres, Gabriel Gijón-Noguerón, Joaquín Páez-Moguer and Manuel García-Sillero

Sports 2026, 14(8), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080347 - 11 Aug 2026

Viewed by 298

Abstract

The foot’s windlass mechanism (WM), engaged by hallux dorsiflexion, is a key determinant of lower-limb propulsive efficiency in explosive sports. This randomized within-subjects crossover study examined whether forefoot wedges of varying angulation, intended to facilitate the windlass mechanism, with or without real-time visual [...] Read more.

The foot’s windlass mechanism (WM), engaged by hallux dorsiflexion, is a key determinant of lower-limb propulsive efficiency in explosive sports. This randomized within-subjects crossover study examined whether forefoot wedges of varying angulation, intended to facilitate the windlass mechanism, with or without real-time visual biofeedback, modify concentric power output during loaded back squats in elite female handball players. Seventeen professional athletes performed 3 × 3 back squats at 65% one-repetition maximum under six randomized conditions: three wedge angles (0°, 10°, and 30°) × biofeedback (present or absent). Peak concentric power (W) was the primary outcome; secondary outcomes included relative peak power (W·kg⁻¹), concentric force (N), and concentric velocity (m·s⁻¹), all recorded using dual force plates. The pre-specified two-way (3 × 2) repeated-measures ANOVA showed no significant main effects of wedge angle or biofeedback and no significant interaction for peak concentric power (all p > 0.05). A complementary exploratory Friedman analysis indicated an overall condition effect (χ² = 14.01, p = 0.016; Kendall’s W = 0.165), with the highest descriptive values observed for the 30° wedge without biofeedback. However, pairwise comparisons did not remain significant after correction and did not isolate an independent wedge effect. Taken together, these findings are exploratory and hypothesis-generating and do not confirm that forefoot wedging acutely enhances power output in this population. Larger, pre-registered trials with direct biomechanical verification of windlass activation and longer-term performance outcomes are needed before specific wedge-based applications can be recommended in elite handball practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Strength, Power Responses and Adaptations to Resistance Training)

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12 pages, 3351 KB

Open AccessArticle

Emerging Portable Technology Provides Preliminary Predictive Models of Maximum Velocity Sprinting in National Australian Track Athletes: A Foundation for Measuring Sprint Performance in the Field

by Timothy Sayer and Nicholas Cross

Sports 2026, 14(8), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080346 - 11 Aug 2026

Viewed by 602

Abstract

Maximal velocity (MaxV) is a key determinant of sprint performance, yet its biomechanical predictors have rarely been examined in the field. This exploratory study developed preliminary predictive models of sprint time and MaxV in national level Australian track sprinters using portable technology. Twenty-eight [...] Read more.

Maximal velocity (MaxV) is a key determinant of sprint performance, yet its biomechanical predictors have rarely been examined in the field. This exploratory study developed preliminary predictive models of sprint time and MaxV in national level Australian track sprinters using portable technology. Twenty-eight sprinters (16 male, 12 female) each completed two maximal 60 m sprints recorded with a MuscleLab LaserSpeed radar, SportScientia Techlayer instrumented insoles, and VueMotion kinograms. The two trials per athlete were averaged (intraclass correlation 0.83–0.98) to give 28 independent observations, and best-subsets multiple regression selected by leave-one-out cross-validated R² subject to all variance inflation factors below five was used to model 60 m and 20 m sprint time and MaxV. The 60 m sprint time was almost entirely explained by MaxV alone (R² = 0.94, cross-validated R² = 0.93), an expected mechanical relationship. The 60 m MaxV was associated with normalised peak force, vertical loading rate, time to peak force and thigh angular velocity (R² = 0.85, cross-validated R² = 0.78). The 20 m sprint time was predicted by 20 m MaxV (R² = 0.80), while vertical loading rate was the only significant predictor of 20 m maximal velocity (β = 0.65, R² = 0.59). These preliminary findings suggest that portable instrumented insoles, sagittal plane kinematics and infrared radar may assist in identifying candidate biomechanical variables associated with MaxV in the field. Given the small sample and absence of external validation, the models require confirmation in larger, independent cohorts. Full article

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18 pages, 868 KB

Open AccessReview

Running Performance Decline in IRONMAN-Distance Triathlon: A Scoping Review of Existing Evidence and Research Gaps

by Yujiro Tsutsumi, Shuichi Machida and Hisashi Naito

Sports 2026, 14(8), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080345 - 10 Aug 2026

Viewed by 854

Abstract

In an IRONMAN-distance triathlon, run performance is a particularly strong correlate of overall race outcome, alongside cycling. Although individual research areas such as pacing, performance prediction, and laboratory physiology have been reviewed separately, they have not been integrated to determine factors contributing to [...] Read more.

In an IRONMAN-distance triathlon, run performance is a particularly strong correlate of overall race outcome, alongside cycling. Although individual research areas such as pacing, performance prediction, and laboratory physiology have been reviewed separately, they have not been integrated to determine factors contributing to running performance decline or to identify key knowledge gaps. This scoping review aims to map the current evidence on running performance decline in IRONMAN-distance triathlon and identify key gaps, with a particular focus on age-group athletes. Following the Arksey and O’Malley framework and PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we searched PubMed and SPORTDiscus for studies reporting quantitative running performance outcomes in IRONMAN races or bike-to-run transition protocols. Of 896 deduplicated records, 70 studies were included. Findings were organised into five sub-questions addressing the extent of evidence, quantification of decline, physiological and biomechanical changes, underlying mechanisms, and inter-individual variability. Pacing patterns and performance predictors are well described, whereas mechanistic research relies almost entirely on short, controlled protocols. Critically, no study identified by this review quantified the “between-context decline,” defined as the difference between an athlete’s standalone marathon performance and their actual IRONMAN running performance. Addressing these gaps requires observational studies using real IRONMAN race data and individual-level analyses, particularly for age-group athletes. Full article

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12 pages, 381 KB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Changes, Individual Variability, and Associations with Baseline Physical Performance in Young Male Soccer Players During the Pre-Season

by Artur Avelino Birk Preissler, Filipe Manuel Clemente, Ana Filipa Silva, Rui Sousa Mendes and Pedro Schons

Sports 2026, 14(8), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080344 - 10 Aug 2026

Viewed by 253

Abstract

Monitoring physical performance during the pre-season may help coaches and practitioners interpret short-term changes in young soccer players, although group-level analyses may mask individual variability. This observational longitudinal study analyzed short-term changes, individual variability, and associations between baseline performance and change magnitude in [...] Read more.

Monitoring physical performance during the pre-season may help coaches and practitioners interpret short-term changes in young soccer players, although group-level analyses may mask individual variability. This observational longitudinal study analyzed short-term changes, individual variability, and associations between baseline performance and change magnitude in 50 under-17 male outfield soccer players during a 47-day pre-season. Physical performance was assessed before and after the pre-season using the squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), 20 m linear sprint (Sprint-20m), 20 m change-of-direction test (COD-20m), and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IRL1). Significant improvements were observed in SJ (+1.43 cm, p < 0.001), CMJ (+1.37 cm, p < 0.001), and COD-20m (+0.31 km·h⁻¹, p < 0.001), whereas no statistically significant changes were detected in Sprint-20m (−0.14 km·h⁻¹, p = 0.121) or Yo-Yo IRL1 (−26.20 m, p = 0.721). Individual changes were heterogeneous, with 68.0% improving in SJ and COD-20m, 64.0% in CMJ, 40.0% in Sprint-20m, and 54.0% in Yo-Yo IRL1. Exploratory inverse associations were observed between baseline performance and change scores for SJ (ρ = −0.35, p = 0.014), CMJ (ρ = −0.40, p = 0.004), and COD-20m (ρ = −0.30, p = 0.033), whereas no statistically significant associations were detected for Sprint-20m or Yo-Yo IRL1. These findings support integrating group-level changes, individual variability, and baseline-performance context when interpreting short-term physical performance monitoring in youth soccer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth: 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 702 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Self-Efficacy and Performance in Artistic Gymnastics: A Systematic Review

by Federica Marzoli, Gianluca di Pinto, Matteo Campanella, Selenia di Fronso, Maurizio Bertollo and Davide Curzi

Sports 2026, 14(8), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080343 - 7 Aug 2026

Viewed by 289

Abstract

Self-efficacy is relevant to sport performance, but its role in artistic gymnastics is unclear because studies vary in construct definition, timing, and outcomes. This PRISMA 2020- and PERSIST 2021-informed systematic review was prospectively registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251266838). PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and [...] Read more.

Self-efficacy is relevant to sport performance, but its role in artistic gymnastics is unclear because studies vary in construct definition, timing, and outcomes. This PRISMA 2020- and PERSIST 2021-informed systematic review was prospectively registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251266838). PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCOhost (SPORTDiscus and APA PsycInfo) were searched from inception to 18 December 2025, supplemented by backward reference-list checking and forward citation searching. Eligible quantitative studies assessed self-efficacy or task- or apparatus-specific efficacy expectations, or used performance predictions or an adapted gymnastics-task confidence measure as efficacy-related proxies and reported a performance outcome; qualitative evidence was contextual only. Nine studies were included (eight quantitative; one qualitative). Competitive studies using direct task- or event-specific efficacy measures or efficacy-related proxies and judged outcomes generally reported positive associations, but correlations and predictive patterns varied across apparatus, samples, and measures. Educational findings and broader confidence constructs were treated as indirect evidence. Meta-analysis was inappropriate because constructs, samples, apparatus, timing, outcomes, and reporting were heterogeneous. The evidence therefore indicates a possible positive but inconsistent, low-certainty association between task- or apparatus-specific efficacy-related beliefs and performance. Contemporary longitudinal studies and standardized gymnastics-specific measures are needed. Full article

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16 pages, 295 KB

Open AccessArticle

Do Biological Maturity and Motor Performance Influence Perceived Player Quality? Evidence from U-15 Soccer Players

by Jakov Marasović, Ante Rađa and Marko Erceg

Sports 2026, 14(8), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080342 - 7 Aug 2026

Viewed by 309

Abstract

This study had two primary objectives: first, to examine the influence of biological maturity status and motor performance indicators on coach-assessed player quality in U-15 soccer players; and second, to explore differences in estimated biological age between players of different quality levels. A [...] Read more.

This study had two primary objectives: first, to examine the influence of biological maturity status and motor performance indicators on coach-assessed player quality in U-15 soccer players; and second, to explore differences in estimated biological age between players of different quality levels. A secondary objective was to identify differences in morphological characteristics and motor performance between players belonging to different bio-banded maturity groups. A total of 240 U-15 male players (14.12 ± 0.84 years) were assessed for estimated biological age (Mirwald method), motor performance (speed and agility tests with and without ball), and perceived quality (5-point scale). Ordinal regression showed that biological age (OR = 2.47) and slalom performance with and without ball, as well as the 20 m sprint with ball, significantly predicted quality, whereas chronological age had a negative effect (OR = 0.44). Biological age differed significantly across quality groups (F = 3.65, p = 0.007, η² = 0.06), remaining significant after controlling for chronological age (F = 3.78, p = 0.005). Bio-banded groups differed significantly in morphological characteristics and in 20 m sprint performance with and without ball, but most differences were attenuated after adjusting for chronological age. These findings confirm the role of biological maturity in coaches’ perception of player quality, with agility tests appearing less maturity-biased than speed tests, while highlighting ball-oriented performance as a potential predictor of playing success. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Growth, Development, and Qualitative Research Protocols for Identifying and Developing Sports Talent for Adolescent Athletes)

11 pages, 220 KB

Open AccessArticle

Awareness of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport Among Russian Coaches Working with Athletes of Various Levels in Athletics and Short-Track Speed Skating

by Eduard Bezuglov, Beatrisa Volel, Elizaveta Kapralova, Mikhail Vinogradov, Emina Malagych, Anna Belyakova and Anna Berdnikova

Sports 2026, 14(8), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080341 - 7 Aug 2026

Viewed by 340

Abstract

Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) can adversely affect athletes’ health and performance. Coaches in individual sports may help recognize warning signs and facilitate referrals, yet their awareness remains understudied, especially among high-performance professionals. A cross-sectional survey using a translated, pilot-tested, and expert-reviewed [...] Read more.

Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) can adversely affect athletes’ health and performance. Coaches in individual sports may help recognize warning signs and facilitate referrals, yet their awareness remains understudied, especially among high-performance professionals. A cross-sectional survey using a translated, pilot-tested, and expert-reviewed adaptation of the Lodge et al. questionnaire was conducted among 101 Russian athletics (n = 75) and short-track speed skating (n = 26) coaches. The primary outcome was self-reported prior awareness of RED-S. Among coaches reporting awareness, secondary outcomes were self-rated confidence and recognition of 12 adverse RED-S consequences. Of 99 coaches who answered the awareness question, 39 (39.4%; 95% CI, 30.3–49.2%) reported prior awareness. Among these 39 coaches, 19 (48.7%) rated their confidence as moderate to very high, and the mean consequence-recognition score was 5.64 ± 4.04 out of 12; 11 (28.2%) recognized at least 9 of 12 consequences. In unadjusted and multivariable analyses, no statistically significant associations were found between prior awareness and sport, sex, athletes’ competitive level, or coaching qualification, although confidence intervals were wide. These findings suggest limited prior awareness of RED-S in the surveyed sample and limited consequence recognition among coaches reporting prior awareness. They may indicate an educational gap with potential implications for athlete health. Targeted coach education should be evaluated in future studies. Full article

13 pages, 513 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Position-Specific, Time-Efficient Warm-Up Injury Prevention Program in Male Football Players: A Season-Long Intervention Study

by Dimitrios Vlachodimos, Athanasios A. Dalamitros, Vasiliki Manou, Thomas Metaxas, Nikolaos Stavropoulos and Ioannis Terzidis

Sports 2026, 14(8), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080340 - 7 Aug 2026

Viewed by 1131

Abstract

This study assessed the effectiveness of a position-specific and time-efficient warm-up injury prevention program for male football players. This season-long quasi-experimental study included 129 male amateur football players. A structured injury prevention program was incorporated into the warm-up routine during the preseason and [...] Read more.

This study assessed the effectiveness of a position-specific and time-efficient warm-up injury prevention program for male football players. This season-long quasi-experimental study included 129 male amateur football players. A structured injury prevention program was incorporated into the warm-up routine during the preseason and competitive season. Prospectively collected injury data from the intervention season were compared with retrospectively collected injury data from the previous season and included injury incidence, the number of injured players, injury severity, and injury burden. The program included general exercises and position-specific modifications for defenders, midfielders, and attackers. Implementation of the program was associated with a 60% reduction in total injuries (p < 0.05) and a 60.3% reduction in total injured players The injury burden was significantly reduced (p < 0.05), as indicated by a reduced mean day lost per injury from 33.24 to 19.56 days. Although injury reductions were observed across all playing positions, between-position differences were not statistically significant. The type of injuries and their mechanisms were not significantly affected. These preliminary, associative findings suggest that a time-efficient, position-specific warm-up program may contribute to reduced injury occurrence in amateur football; however, given the quasi-experimental design, confirmation through randomized controlled trials is required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improving Health and Performance in Football)

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12 pages, 346 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability of Sprint Time and Force—Velocity Profiles During Sprint Acceleration in Elite Rugby Union Players: Inter-Trial Reliability of Linear Encoder, GPS, Timing Gates and Video Analysis

by Samuel Grimbert Le Mer, Adrien Vachon, Iñigo Mujika, Nicolas Berryman, Jean-Benoit Morin and Laurent Bosquet

Sports 2026, 14(8), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080339 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 432

Abstract

This study aimed to test the reliability of measurements obtained using different technologies for sprint time and force–velocity profiles during sprint running. Seventeen elite rugby union players completed three experimental sessions, separated by one week. During each session, players completed two 30 m [...] Read more.

This study aimed to test the reliability of measurements obtained using different technologies for sprint time and force–velocity profiles during sprint running. Seventeen elite rugby union players completed three experimental sessions, separated by one week. During each session, players completed two 30 m sprints and measurements were performed simultaneously with a linear encoder, a 10 Hz GPS unit, timing gates and video analysis. Split time (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 m), maximal velocity (V_MAX, m·s⁻¹) and force–velocity variables (maximal power, P_MAX, W·kg⁻¹; theoretical maximal force, F₀, N·kg⁻¹; theoretical maximal velocity, V₀, m·s⁻¹; maximal ratio of force, RF_MAX, percentage) from the best sprint of each session were computed. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05 for all analyses. Linear encoder and video analysis showed moderate-to-very-high reliability for sprint time (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.68 to 0.94; standard error of measurement (SEM) = 0.95 to 2.59%), while timing gates showed poor-to-high reliability (ICC = 0.23 to 0.85; SEM = 1.80 to 7.23%). Linear encoder showed very-high reliability for maximal velocity (ICC = 0.94) and force–velocity variables for P_MAX (ICC = 0.90), high reliability for V₀ (ICC = 0.88) as well as RF_MAX (ICC = 0.75), and moderate reliability for F₀ (ICC = 0.66). Linear encoder (ICC = 0.66 to 0.94) and video analysis (ICC = 0.50 to 0.94) were the most reliable methods to measure sprint times while linear encoder, due to a higher sampling frequency, was the most reliable to establish the force–velocity profile. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Athlete Assessment and Performance Training)

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22 pages, 1845 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploratory Velocity-Adjusted Upper-Extremity Loading Profiles in Fastball Pitching: A Secondary Analysis of OpenBiomechanics Data

by Yipu Zhang, Yue Wu and Han-Kyo Seo

Sports 2026, 14(8), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080338 - 5 Aug 2026

Viewed by 313

Abstract

Background: Fastballs delivered at comparable velocities may differ in upper-extremity loading, but cross-sectional profile differences do not establish within-pitcher biomechanical mechanisms. Objective: To construct an exploratory velocity-adjusted elbow–shoulder loading profile and descriptively compare non-definitional kinetic-chain characteristics associated with high-velocity low- and high-adjusted-load profiles. [...] Read more.

Background: Fastballs delivered at comparable velocities may differ in upper-extremity loading, but cross-sectional profile differences do not establish within-pitcher biomechanical mechanisms. Objective: To construct an exploratory velocity-adjusted elbow–shoulder loading profile and descriptively compare non-definitional kinetic-chain characteristics associated with high-velocity low- and high-adjusted-load profiles. Methods: This cross-sectional secondary analysis included 411 fastballs from 100 pitchers in the OpenBiomechanics Project. Elbow varus and shoulder internal rotation moments were adjusted for pitch velocity, body mass, height, age, throwing side, and playing level; standardized residuals were averaged into a composite score. Sample tertiles defined high-velocity low-adjusted-load (HVLL) and high-velocity high-adjusted-load (HVHL) profiles, and pitcher-cluster-bootstrap and sensitivity analyses assessed robustness. Results: HVLL included 47 pitches from 17 pitchers, and HVHL included 37 pitches from 17 pitchers; only two pitchers contributed to both profiles, making the HVLL-versus-HVHL contrast almost entirely inter-individual. Pitch velocity was comparable (144.41 vs. 143.39 km/h; difference, 1.01 km/h; 95% CI, −0.97 to 2.88; p = 0.310). HVLL pitches showed smaller lead-knee extension change (6.61 degrees vs. 19.85 degrees; difference, −13.25 degrees; 95% CI, −20.37 to −5.58; FDR-adjusted p = 0.010) and lower lead-knee extension angular velocity at foot plant (30.67 vs. 232.77 degrees/s; difference, −202.10 degrees/s; 95% CI, −293.22 to −88.82; FDR-adjusted p = 0.010). These differences were attenuated when pitcher fixed effects were used to define loading residuals, further limiting within-pitcher interpretation. Conclusions: Because only two pitchers contributed to both profiles, the contrast was almost entirely inter-individual and describes between-pitcher performance–loading organization. It generates hypotheses but does not establish within-pitcher mechanisms, injury risk, or coaching targets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Research to Optimize Performance and Reduce Injury Risk in Team Sports)

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15 pages, 617 KB

Open AccessArticle

Age-Related Changes in Standing Sprint Start Performance and Posture in Sprinting

by Yoshiki Fujisawa and Ryohei Hayashi

Sports 2026, 14(8), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080337 - 5 Aug 2026

Viewed by 374

Abstract

The relationship between upper- and lower-limb positioning during standing sprint starts and acceleration performance across developmental stages remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to categorize the standing sprint start postures of participants ranging from elementary school to university students and to [...] Read more.

The relationship between upper- and lower-limb positioning during standing sprint starts and acceleration performance across developmental stages remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to categorize the standing sprint start postures of participants ranging from elementary school to university students and to examine how these postures influence the time from the start signal to the first foot contact and the 5-m split time during a 50-m sprint. Starting postures were classified as Type A (same-side arm–leg alignment) or Type B (opposite-side arm–leg alignment). Two-way ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for posture type, indicating that Type B generally resulted in a shorter initial acceleration time than did Type A. Furthermore, a significant interaction effect was found for the 5-m split time for boys, with a particularly pronounced trend of decreasing times from lower elementary school to junior high school grades. These findings suggest that contralateral arm–leg positioning during standing sprint starts is associated with early acceleration performance and may reflect developmental changes in coordination relevant to sprint performance and coaching practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Youth Sport Performance and Athlete Development)

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21 pages, 2300 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biomechanical Variables Associated with the First 20 m of the Start Phase in Speed Skaters

by Javier Gaviria-Chavarro, Miguel Ángel Gómez-García and Claudia F. Giraldo-Jiménez

Sports 2026, 14(8), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080336 - 4 Aug 2026

Viewed by 349

Abstract

This exploratory study examined segmental biomechanical variables associated with 20 m start performance in 24 juvenile inline speed skaters (14–16 years). Athletes performed three maximal 20 m starts; the best time was recorded with photoelectric timing gates, and the corresponding trial was analyzed [...] Read more.

This exploratory study examined segmental biomechanical variables associated with 20 m start performance in 24 juvenile inline speed skaters (14–16 years). Athletes performed three maximal 20 m starts; the best time was recorded with photoelectric timing gates, and the corresponding trial was analyzed from two-dimensional video using Tracker. Segmental kinematics and indirect inertial estimates were derived using De Leva-adjusted anthropometric parameters. Candidate predictors were selected with LASSO, and the complete preprocessing and selection pipeline was evaluated using nested leave-one-out cross-validation. Post-selection ordinary least squares, bootstrap, and Bayesian models were used as secondary analyses of coefficient sensitivity and uncertainty. LASSO retained forearm segmental inertial force estimate, thigh velocity, forearm velocity, thigh angular velocity, and torso angular acceleration. The nested pipeline achieved RMSE = 0.12 s, MAE = 0.08 s, and R²_pred = 0.485. Greater thigh velocity, forearm inertial force estimate, thigh angular velocity, and torso angular acceleration were associated with shorter times, whereas greater forearm velocity was associated with longer times. These findings identify candidate within-sample associations, not stable biomechanical determinants. Because of the small sample size, cross-sectional design, indirect two-dimensional measurements, absent reliability analysis, and lack of external validation, the variables should be used only for hypothesis generation and provisional monitoring. Full article

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14 pages, 452 KB

Open AccessArticle

Levels of Susceptibility to Exercise Dependence and Mood States in Street Runners

by Anderson Ricardo Malmonge Barbosa Luciano, Flávia Marchesi Ciniciato, Danilo Malmonge Barbosa Luciano, Ercizio Lucas Biazus, Vinicius Barroso Hirota, Elias De França, Marcelo Rodrigues da Cunha and Carlos Eduardo Lopes Verardi

Sports 2026, 14(8), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080335 - 4 Aug 2026

Viewed by 941

Abstract

The regular practice of physical exercise is often associated with promoting benefits for practitioners. In recent decades, street running has become popular worldwide, with most participants being recreational runners who engage in the activity primarily to promote health, well-being, leisure, and quality of [...] Read more.

The regular practice of physical exercise is often associated with promoting benefits for practitioners. In recent decades, street running has become popular worldwide, with most participants being recreational runners who engage in the activity primarily to promote health, well-being, leisure, and quality of life, although some also participate with competitive goals. Among the psychological aspects related to exercise, studies have shown that some individuals may become susceptible to “exercise dependence,” a condition in which exercise takes a central role in a person’s life. As a result, individuals may exhibit characteristics such as excessive training, injuries; weight control issues, withdrawal symptoms when unable to exercise and even problems in social relationships when exercise is exclusively prioritized. Background/Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate and analyze levels of susceptibility to running dependence and its relationship with exercise volume and mood states (tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, and mental confusion). Methods: This was a quantitative cross-sectional study involving 761 regular Brazilian runners (59.8% male and 40.2% female) who consented to participate and answered the Sociodemographic Questionnaire, the Escala de Dependência de Corrida (EDC), a Brazilian Portuguese adaptation of the Negative Addiction Scale (NAS), and the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS). The analysis plan was conducted through descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, median, 1st and 3rd quartiles, interquartile range, and 95% confidence intervals) and inferential statistics (Spearman’s Correlation and Kruskal–Wallis Test). In all tests, the significance level adopted was p < 0.05. Results: The sample was divided into three groups of susceptibility to exercise dependence: low (37.6%), moderate (36.4%), and high (26%). Scores indicative of greater susceptibility to exercise dependence showed positive correlations with running practice volume (years of experience, weekly training frequency, weekly training duration, and weekly mileage), as well as with vigor. Although a statistically significant correlation was also observed for tension, its magnitude was trivial (rs = 0.080). Comparisons using the Kruskal–Wallis test showed that higher susceptibility levels were associated with greater running volumes and higher raw vigor scores, whereas no significant group differences were observed for the remaining mood states. Conclusions: Higher susceptibility to exercise dependence was associated with greater running volume and higher raw vigor scores. No consistent associations were observed with negative mood states, except for a trivial correlation with tension. These findings suggest that greater susceptibility to exercise dependence among runners was primarily associated with higher raw vigor scores rather than with broader alterations in mood states. Full article

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Sports, Volume 14, Issue 8 (August 2026) – 52 articles

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