Evidence Synthesis and Knowledge Integration for Sustainable Peatland Management

Abstract

Peatland research has expanded rapidly in the last two decades encompassing a diverse, multi-disciplinary evidence base, as countries seek to manage this resource sustainably along with meeting climate and biodiversity targets. There is growing global interest in the role of peatlands in carbon and water cycles, leading to more interdisciplinary research that applies ecosystem services and other integrative frameworks to generate knowledge and provide guidance for action. These trends have been replicated in Ireland with increasing research in peatland science, applied work on these degraded ecosystems, and a growing interest from civil society, landowners, and communities in the stewardship of this resource. This paper presents evidence-based insights from over two decades of Irish peatland research, with practical lessons for peatland policy and management in other national contexts. Analyses of the evidence from the literature, specialist expertise, and stakeholder knowledge were carried out under ten themes: biodiversity, soil, climate change, water, archaeology and palaeoenvironment, technology and mapping, society and culture, management, growing media and policy and law. The research identified four foundational pillars (accountability, longevity, equity and holistic knowledge) as critical to achieving sustainable peatland management in Ireland, with broader application to other regions. Peatland restoration is widely recognised across research disciplines as a key tool to meet regulatory targets related to climate, biodiversity, and water quality, while also delivering societal benefits. The findings of this research provide accessible, reliable and up-to-date evidence for sustainable peatland management. This study addresses a critical global knowledge gap by developing a novel, interdisciplinary evidence synthesis framework—applied here to Ireland but replicable worldwide—that systematically integrates 20 years of multi-disciplinary peatland research, expert insights, and stakeholder perspectives across ten thematic pillars.

1. Introduction

Peatland research has expanded rapidly in the last two decades, encompassing a diverse and complex multi-disciplinary evidence base, as countries seek to manage this resource sustainably along with meeting climate and biodiversity targets. This has been guided by the growing recognition that peatland degradation will lead to significant negative impacts on global climate change and human health [1]. Research and policy across Europe and at the global scale highlights the need for protection of undrained peatlands, rewetting of drained peatlands and restoration of degraded peatlands [2]. This is essential to reach global and EU goals in climate, soil health, water, and biodiversity policy. These trends have been replicated in Ireland, with increasing research in peatland science and applied work on degraded ecosystems via European and national funding. There is also a growing interest from civil society, landowners, and communities in the restoration and stewardship of peatlands [3].

Sustainability is a well-established goal in global and national governance and a key concept in peatland management, given the need to sustain the diverse range of ecological, social, and economic values associated with peatlands [4]. Current scientific knowledge shows that peatlands provide multiple social-ecological benefits beyond traditional uses, such as fuel or horticulture [4]. Yet, improving sustainability across all the ecosystem services provided by peatlands has presented significant challenges to date. In this review, sustainable peatland management (SPM) is defined as societal responsibility to optimise the social, cultural, environmental, and economic contributions that peatlands make to the health and well-being of current and future generations. The sustainable management of ecosystems, such as peatlands, requires navigating uncertainty and balancing the diverse perspectives and values of multiple stakeholders, as well as considering nonhuman communities [5]. Research has shown the negative impact that degraded peatlands have on water quality, air quality, flora and fauna, flood risk, and climate (through greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions), as well as the impacts on cultural heritage and the communities that live and work in these landscapes [6]. Despite the recognition of restored peatlands as valuable ecosystems that play a crucial role in supporting human health and well-being, implementation of policy often lags behind the evidence [7].

Peatlands are now high on the political agenda with international biodiversity and climate change conventions (Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)), recognising peatlands as a priority for action [1]. At the EU level, peatlands are highlighted as playing a central role to achieve the goals set out in the Paris Agreement, and peatlands are already included in the 2030 Climate and Energy Framework. The UN declared 2021–2030 as a ‘Decade of Ecosystem Restoration’, with peatland restoration as a central target of the initiative. The new EU Nature Restoration Law, enacted in 2024, set legally binding targets for EU nations to restore degraded ecosystems, especially those with the most potential to store carbon and reduce the impact of natural disasters. In Ireland, the Climate Action and Low Carbon Development (Amendment) Act [8] identified the establishment of legally binding GHG emissions targets (following EU targets) as a key priority to transition to a low carbon economy [6]. Ireland’s Territorial Just Transition Plan [9] sets out the need for supports for regions impacted by the move away from peat extraction and electricity generation from peat. Given that many knowledge gaps still exist across disciplines and sectors, there is urgent need to synthesise existing knowledge, identify knowledge gaps and uncertainties, and provide a roadmap for the future sustainable management and restoration of peatlands.

Drainage-based use of peatlands has been widespread in Europe for over a thousand years, supporting food, fodder, and timber production, as well as peat extraction for energy [1]. Globally, Ireland has experienced the highest rate of wetland loss (primarily peatlands) since the 1700s [10]. Irish peatlands are unique in a global context due to their exceptional ecological and cultural significance. They host diverse habitats that include raised bogs, upland and lowland blanket bogs, and fens, which not only support rare species but are critical for climate regulation, water management, and carbon storage. They also preserve invaluable historical, archaeological, and paleo-environmental records. Culturally, peatlands are deeply rooted in Irish identity, shaped by centuries of turf extraction and rural livelihoods, and immortalised in folklore, the literature, and tradition.

Peatlands were at the heart of the first ‘sustainable development’ project funded by the Irish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2006, which culminated in the BOGLAND Report [4]. The report comprised a country-wide peatland assessment that delivered 58 recommendations, which formed the backbone of Ireland’s first National Peatland Strategy [11]. The BOGLAND protocol was one of the first to recognise the importance of the relationships between people and peatlands and sought to understand the different types of values related to peatlands across social, ecological, cultural, economic, and institutional dimensions. Despite extensive calls for conservation and restoration that integrates these dimensions, restoration still focuses mostly on ecological indicators, neglecting important cultural and social factors, barriers to implementation, and issues of equity [12]. A key motivation for this review is to bring together research across disciplines to represent the systemic nature of peatland conservation and restoration processes in sustaining both social and ecological resilience.

This paper summarises the findings of the Peat Hub Ireland (PHI) project, the aim of which was to collate evidence to encourage an evidence-based position for the future sustainable management of Ireland’s peatlands. The key objectives of the project involved the compilation of a glossary of peatland terms for stakeholders; the development of a methodology (stakeholder analysis, survey, and evidence synthesis) to compile and validate available data; deliver an accessible database of evidence for researchers and stakeholders to inform policy development and support the implementation of national and EU policies and strategies; and make recommendations to support sustainable peatland actions in a ‘whole-of-society’ approach, across government, academic institutions, and sectors. The evidence synthesis carried out in this project aimed to answer the following key questions: (1) What critical knowledge gaps exist across research disciplines to achieve sustainable peatland management in Ireland, with lessons applicable to other peatland regions? (2) What actions are needed for sustainable peatland management in Ireland and Europe-wide? (3) What insights can be learned from this evidence synthesis for sustainable peatland management in other countries and jurisdictions?

This study addresses a critical global knowledge gap by developing a novel, interdisciplinary evidence synthesis framework—applied here to Ireland but replicable worldwide—that systematically integrates 20 years of multi-disciplinary peatland research (the peer-reviewed and grey literature), expert insights, and stakeholder perspectives across ten thematic pillars. While peatland studies have expanded globally, they are often focused on narrow disciplines or rely on quantitative reviews, leaving fragmented and unevenly applied knowledge. This is especially true in national contexts like Ireland, where peatlands are central to climate, biodiversity, and cultural debates. By contrast, this study offers the first national-scale, holistic synthesis for peatlands, bridging science, policy, and practice and making it a key tool for sustainable peatland management (SPM). This paper provides a transferable model for other regions grappling with similar challenges, advancing global SPM efforts through inclusive, actionable knowledge integration.

2. Materials and Methods

Systematic evidence synthesis covers a broad spectrum of approaches and methods that are used to be more systematic in the way evidence is synthesised and combined from multiple sources [13]. The heterogeneous nature of the current research on Irish peatlands, which involves multiple disciplines, sectors, and methodologies, necessitates a more comprehensive approach than that used in traditional systematic reviews that aim to answer specific, focused questions. Such reviews can be biased toward quantitative data, and their positivist approach to evidence synthesis may exclude important knowledge inputs from the social sciences, practitioners, and stakeholders [13]. This study embraces a broader knowledge synthesis framework, one that incorporates expert and stakeholder knowledge with the peer-reviewed and grey literature to represent the wide knowledge base needed for sustainable peatland management (Figure 1). This approach is informed by recognition of multiple forms of knowledge as legitimate and necessary for sustainability transitions, which is in line with recommendations from global assessments [14] and calls for broader definitions of evidence that incorporate knowledge beyond the peer-reviewed, academic literature [15].

The first step was to carry out a comprehensive stakeholder analysis to identify peatland researchers and stakeholders to engage with throughout the research [16]. This stakeholder analysis informed all phases of the project, with stakeholders involved in piloting survey instruments, contributing knowledge and recommending the literature, providing input to specific research themes, and attending the end-of-project workshop.

Following the stakeholder analysis, clarifying terminology related to peatlands was essential to support stakeholder access to consistent and current information and definitions [17]. A list of critical terms and concepts was collated (recognising that this is an ongoing area of scientific discussion), which drew on national, European, and international research and policy documents [4,11,18]. Definitions were also collected from a survey of Irish peatland researchers (see Section 2.1). The peatland glossary can be accessed on the Peat Hub Ireland website [19], where users can suggest terms or propose updates to existing terms.

2.1. Surveys with Peatland Researchers and Stakeholders

Two online survey questionnaires were conducted to elicit expert knowledge and stakeholder perspectives on current knowledge gaps and issues in peatland research. The first survey was targeted at researchers and the second survey at the broader network of stakeholders in Ireland that are involved with different aspects of peatlands and their management. A total of 98 researchers were identified through the project team’s professional networks and the survey was sent directly to these researchers. The survey questionnaire included 10 questions and collected a range of data, including on the disciplines represented, issues and knowledge gaps in the researcher’s field of study, and their understanding of SPM (Supplementary Materials S1: Survey questions). The survey also provided an opportunity for researchers to suggest key sources of the peer-reviewed literature in their field and to identify terminology for the glossary. A total of 40 researchers responded to the survey (approximately 41% response rate). Respondents represented a variety of disciplines, dominated by contributions from the natural sciences.

The stakeholder survey was conducted over a 10-week period from August to October 2023. Distribution was broadly targeted at anyone with an interest in peatlands in Ireland, including government agencies, non-governmental organisations, the private sector, and civil society. The survey questionnaire included 10 questions and collected a range of data relating to respondent demographics, perceived knowledge gaps, and barriers and enablers to the application of research (Supplementary Materials S1: Survey questions). Respondents could also suggest terms to be included in the glossary. A total of 98 responses were received representing a variety of sectors and peatland projects in Ireland.

2.2. Evidence Synthesis Search Strategy

The evidence base for this review drew on a thorough appraisal of Irish peatland research and the literature from 2000 to 2023 and generated an accessible evidence base to support SPM in Ireland. The review drew on three categories of data (the peer-reviewed literature, grey literature, and recommendations from peatland researchers via survey), as outlined in Figure 1. Analysis of the evidence was carried out under ten key review themes: biodiversity, soil, climate change, water, archaeology and paleo-environment, technology and mapping, society and culture, management, growing media/substrate, policy, and law.

The Web of Science and Scopus databases were searched on 10 October 2023 using the keyword search string “(irish OR ireland) AND (peatland OR bog OR fen OR mire OR bogland)”. This search string was the most appropriate fit for the study scope and aims. Different phrases and keyword strings were tested using Boolean searching (AND, OR, NOT) and the addition of various terms (e.g., biodiversity, restoration, just transition) to the core search string, e.g., (irish OR ireland) AND (peatland* OR bog OR fen OR mire OR bogland) AND (biodiversity). However, these variations yielded no additional value in the results. Results from these databases were combined, as Web of Science generally covers natural sciences and engineering, while Scopus includes the social sciences to a greater degree, so combining these data sources improved the quality and scope of the results [20]. A summary of the keyword search strategy for each database is provided in

Table 1. Source of the literature and keyword search strategy.

Source	Keyword Search
Web of Science	(irish OR ireland) AND (peatland OR bog OR fen OR mire OR bogland) (All Fields) and English (Languages) and IRELAND or ENGLAND or NORTH IRELAND or GERMANY or CANADA or SCOTLAND or NETHERLANDS or WALES or FRANCE (Countries/Regions)
Scopus	TITLE-ABS-KEY ((irish OR ireland) AND (peatland OR bog OR fen OR mire OR bogland)) AND PUBYEAR > 1999 AND PUBYEAR < 2024 AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, ”English”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (AFFILCOUNTRY, ”Ireland” “United Kingdom” ”Germany”) “Netherlands” “Canada” ”France”))
Google Scholar	(irish OR ireland) AND (peatland OR bog OR fen OR mire OR bogland)
Google Scholar	‘peatland or bog’ site: www.tailte.ie (accessed on 4 October 2023). ‘peatland or bog’ site: www.gsi.ie (accessed on 4 October 2023). ‘peatland or bog’ site: www.epa.ie (accessed on 4 October 2023). ‘peatland or bog’ site: www.npws.ie (accessed on 4 October 2023). ‘peatland’ site: www.teagasc.ie (accessed on 4 October 2023).
Proquest Theses UK/Irl	(irish OR ireland) AND (peatland OR bog OR fen OR mire OR bogland)

.

Google Scholar was used to broaden the search scope and counter publication bias [21], as it is considered the most comprehensive of the large, multidisciplinary crawler-based search systems [22]. A search on the ProQuest Dissertations and Theses UK & Ireland database also yielded unpublished theses relating to Irish peatlands. These searches were combined using the bibliometrix package [23] in R [24], and additional manual work was needed to clean the data.

Article titles were then screened based on predefined criteria, specifically: exclusion of studies not conducted in or focused on Ireland (Criterion 1); exclusion of studies not relevant to peatlands or their sustainable management (Criterion 2); and exclusion of “History and Literature” studies, which created another database not directly related to peatland management, but of value to researchers in Arts and Humanities disciplines (Criterion 3). Conference abstracts, inaccessible full-papers and self-published web documents were also removed (Criterion 4). The flowchart in Figure 2 provides an overview of the search and screening process. No Irish language research was included in this study. Content analysis was subsequently performed on the database to identify trends in publications by year and to highlight the distribution of the themes (Section 3.1).

2.3. Data Analysis for Evidence Synthesis

Each of the 900 entries in the final database was coded according to the main themes identified for analysis (column titled ‘Theme’ in the database). Within each theme, sub-topics were created to identify specific areas of interest to researchers, for example, peat slides, wildfire management, and habitat types. To ensure traceability, each record was assigned a unique ID number, which linked it back to the original source. Content analysis was operationalised through a structured review matrix in Microsoft Excel 2016 for each theme. This matrix was used to extract key information from the literature and included the following categories: aims/purpose of research; key findings relating to the review question; key messages; policy recommendations; and research gaps. For each paper, the abstract was first screened, and relevant information was entered into the matrix. Not all papers included policy recommendations or research gaps. Keyword searches were then conducted within each document using terms, such as “sustainable”, “policy”, “gap”, “further research” and “recommendations”. If the abstract and keyword searches did not yield sufficient information, full-text screening was undertaken.

Following this review process, briefing notes and detailed factsheets were produced for each theme and sub-topic. These included the unique ID numbers used to reference the source material. This process (summarised in Figure 3) provided a systematic catalogue of evidence to support narrative synthesis. This synthesis identified patterns and trends across the research themes, which enabled the articulation of discipline-specific research gaps and sector-specific recommendations. To support accessibility and dissemination of the findings, plain-language factsheets for each theme were made available on the project website1.

3. Results

3.1. Publication Trends

The Peat Hub Ireland database provides a searchable, updatable, and comprehensive evidence base for the sustainable management of peatlands in Ireland and is available to download on Zenodo2, an open-source data repository platform. The database is searchable by author, publication year, theme, sub-topic, title, DOI/URL, and the source of citation, with each record given a unique ID number. The database showed that since 2000, there has been a steady but intermittent increase in peatland research in Ireland (Figure 4). The sources of data and corresponding number of records retrieved were as follows: Web of Science and Scopus (n = 484); Google Scholar (n = 159 records); Irish website searches (n = 117); ProQuest Thesis (n = 49); Researcher submissions from survey (n = 23); and manual searches (n = 68).

The thematic distribution of the research provides an indicative overview of the concentration of the academic focus, highlighting areas where knowledge gaps persist (Figure 5). Publications related to biodiversity, management, paleo-environment, climate, water, and soil were most prevalent (78% of the database). A total of 180 papers were catalogued for the biodiversity category, making it the largest (approximately 20.1%) in the database. Research on the cultural, societal, policy, and legal dimensions of peatland conservation, restoration and management was less well established (8.8%). Archaeology constituted a relatively minor proportion of the overall research (6.2% of the studies reviewed), while new technology and mapping of peatlands is growing rapidly (4.7%). Finally, research on growing media was the most limited (0.9%).

3.2. Peatland Trends: Declining Biodiversity, Escalating Climate Risk, and Water Quality Challenges

The status of peatland biodiversity in Ireland reflects global declines in biodiversity, with a continuing downward trend on all fronts (habitats, birds, invertebrates) [6,14]. Activities, such as peat extraction and drainage, have an ongoing impact on peatland habitats [25]. These impacts are likely to be exacerbated by climate change, leading to a loss of carbon stored and increased fire risk and bog slides [26]. The utilisation and degradation of Irish peatlands has turned them from a net sink to a source of carbon, with half of the emissions coming from farmed drained peat soils [27]. The widespread degradation of peatlands has also led to a significant reduction in water quality with organic matter from peatland runoff posing challenges to water treatment [6,28,29]. Research findings also showed that historic peatland degradation and extraction has resulted in damage and loss of archaeological sites, with these sites remaining vulnerable to human activities and climate change [30]. While interest in mapping peatland information derived from digital data has grown exponentially and offers opportunities to scale up monitoring and action [31,32], ongoing barriers to participation and exclusion of the societal dimensions of SPM continue to hamper efforts to restore and rewet peatlands [3,33].

3.3. Findings by Theme

In this section, a synopsis of evidence is presented for each theme identified in this study, followed by a summary of actions and research gaps in Table 2. In total, 71 research gaps (50% high priority) were identified and 96 key actions (60% high priority) were provided for policymakers, researchers, and civil society [34]. Although outlined as separate themes, there are complementarities and interdependencies in the actions and research recommendations provided.

3.3.1. Biodiversity

Peatlands are exceptional natural entities that can form a variety of landscapes containing a range of ecosystems and unique biodiversity (i.e., the variety and variability of living species including plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, and genetic material). Peatland biodiversity is so rich that species have yet to be discovered but many species are threatened by unsustainable human activities [4]. Peatlands are refugia of rare and threatened species that support unique communities of species [35]. The ecosystem services provided by natural peatlands depend ultimately on living organisms. Biodiversity is directly responsible for the creation of the diversity of landscape, habitats, and for various peat types, and helps to underpin a sustainable rural community, as well as providing services for society. To reverse biodiversity loss, it is essential that the water table is effectively managed, and peatlands are protected and restored. This is vital not only for the biodiversity peatlands support or should support (from genetic to landscape scale), but also for their role as habitat connectors and their significant contribution to global climatic and hydrological processes.

3.3.2. Soil

According to the Global Peatland Assessment Report [1], land with any thickness of in situ peat is a peatland. However, for mapping and statistical purposes (e.g., reporting to the UNFCCC), each country has its own definition based on a minimal peat depth. In Ireland, experts from various institutions met during the BOGLAND project [4] and defined peat soils as soil that contains peat over a depth of at least 30 cm deep; the depth requirement does not apply in the event that the peat layer is directly over bedrock. For the purpose of reporting to the UNFCCC, the EPA uses the depth sensu stricto and if the peat layer is less than 30 cm then the soil is classified as organo-mineral (or peaty-mineral) [36]. Peat soils store an enormous amount of carbon because of the high organic matter content and depth of the peat. Recent estimates for Ireland put the total carbon store at 2216 Mt with c.42% stored in raised bogs, c.42% in lowland blanket bogs, and c.15% in mountain blanket bogs [37]. Peat soils have a low level of available nutrients; most of the nitrogen is bound to the organic matter but peat soils remain a significant store of nitrogen with total nitrogen stock in Irish peat soils estimated at 73 Mt [38]. Preservation of this store is critical to help Ireland meet its targets to reduce GHG emissions. Healthy peat soils also help to improve water quality and provide a habitat for a range of species. Peat soils are also important repositories of historical and archaeological evidence and provide a platform for many human activities. In Ireland, estimates of the area of peat soils vary depending on the depth, and have been reported to range from 20.6% to 23.3% [31,39]. Peat soils are currently under threat from unsustainable practices in Ireland and all over Europe [40]. Anthropogenic disturbances (land use change) [41], and also natural erosion of peatlands [42], significantly affect their functions and the ecosystem services that they provide, triggering losses of peat and the release of carbon, as well as nutrient losses to water and leaching of pollutants such as arsenic, lead, and sulphate.

3.3.3. Climate Change

Peatlands play a vital role in regulating the global climate by acting as long-term carbon sinks, with carbon accumulating when the amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂) fixed by the peatland vegetation during photosynthesis is greater than that released as a result of (i) respiration by the plants and the microbial communities, (ii) methane (CH₄) emissions, and (iii) leaching and surface runoff of fluvial or dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Peatlands are likely to be severely affected by climate change, with impacts including changes in decomposition rates leading to a loss of the stored carbon; increased fire risk; and reduced peatland area [43]. On average, Irish peatlands contain more than three quarters of the total soil organic carbon in Ireland [37]. However, this carbon is released when the peat is dry, so ensuring that the peat is wet is the first measure to reduce negative impacts on the climate [44]. Crucially, the rising temperatures associated with climate change are thought to enhance peatland decomposition and DOC release to inland waters. Degraded peatlands are also expected to be more vulnerable to climatic changes, and importantly, the longer a rewetted peatland has been established, the more resilient it will be to climate change [26].

3.3.4. Water

Undisturbed peatlands provide important ecosystem services as they buffer against acidification and eutrophication by locking up nutrients and other elements, which in turn buffer downstream surface waters and their biota. Although water from natural bogs is acidic and low in minerals, the streams that drain these bogs host an unusual variety of organisms [45]. Peatland catchments are also important for drinking water supply. In Ireland and the United Kingdom, approximately 85% of all drinking water is sourced directly from peatlands, thereby highlighting the crucial role that peatlands play in the water security of these nations [46].

Drainage lowers the water table, which leads to significant changes in hydrology (i.e., the way in which the water is stored and flows off the peat surface) and water quality within the bog and downstream water bodies. For example, the Irish Midlands region, known for its originally extensive cover of raised bogs, which have been utilised for many decades, is facing a significant and widespread reduction in water quality with high fluvial nitrogen and carbon content being present in all streams [29]. Peatland drainage presents several serious challenges to aquatic life, including increased mortality, reduced richness, behavioural changes, habitat alterations, and changes in community structure [47].

Peatland restoration has been highlighted as a tool to meet different regulatory targets with regard to water quality (Water Framework Directive (i.e., Directive 2000/60/EC)). To date, there has been a dearth of Irish data and published studies to support this management practice despite several governmental restoration projects. Since industrial cutaway peatlands are extremely heterogeneous, their rehabilitation will include a mosaic of habitats, such as lakes of variable hydro-chemical stability [48], planted or naturally regenerated wooded areas [49], and rewetted areas [50], which may also affect water quality within the larger river basin [29]. In some areas, the restoration of blanket bogs and sustainable management techniques and practices carried out by local farmers and forest-owners have helped restore suitable eco-hydrological conditions [28], including for the rare and protected Freshwater Pearl Mussel [51].

3.3.5. Archaeology and Paleo-Environment

Ireland’s peatland and wetland archaeology has been the subject of archaeological fieldwork and research for decades [52,53]. Artefacts and archaeological sites preserved in peatland deposits have provided an exceptionally rich repository of knowledge about the communities who have lived and interacted with the bogs throughout all historic periods [52]. The waterlogged conditions of peatlands preserve a wide range of archaeological and paleo-environmental evidence, collectively known as the archaeo-environmental record [54]. The preservative qualities of peatlands arise from their acidic and anoxic environment (i.e., deficiency of oxygen) and have contributed to the preservation of human and animal tissue [55]. The value of bogs for understanding human history is also evident in research. Interpretation of the archaeological record requires understanding the context of the site or find, which can inform interpretation and feed into theory building [53,56]. Pollen, sampled from cores extracted from peat bogs, provide a means to reconstruct local vegetation and identify human impact and abandonment in various historical periods [57]. While peatland restoration can provide benefits for the future protection of the archaeo-environmental resource, it is crucial that archaeological remains are protected and appropriate mitigation carried out early in the process of planning restoration and rehabilitation work [30].

3.3.6. Technology and Mapping

Interest in mapping peatland information derived from digital data, whether remotely sensed data (e.g., satellite imagery, radiometric data3) or data from other digital mapping (historical maps) and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies (machine learning) has grown exponentially in the last two decades [17]. There are now multiple means to remotely monitor peatland areas, their status, and the effects of management (especially rewetting and restoration), and they range from space-based satellite measurements (optical and radar) to airborne geophysical measurements (electro-magnetic and radiometric) [32,58]. The analysis and classification of land cover, land use, peat depth, and three-dimensional terrain modelling have been the principal applications of these methodologies, although they are also being increasingly deployed to monitor the environmental conditions of peatlands, vegetation, and disturbances, such as drainage systems [17,59].

A variety of data sources are now available, such as Earth observation (EO) data (imagery) operated either by NASA (Landsat) or by the European Space Station (Sentinel-2), airborne radiometric surveys (e.g., the Tellus project), or light detection and ranging (LIDAR) surveys. This review underscored the need for enhanced upscaling techniques and the integration of multi-sensor data (e.g., satellite and drone imagery and LIDAR products), combined with machine learning algorithms, to enrich our understanding and sustainable management of peatlands by providing more accurate maps and tools for efficiently monitoring the status of peatlands.

3.3.7. Society and Culture

Research in this category is grouped into the thematic areas: participation, values, and culture, which intersect and connect to each other across multiple dimensions (Figure 6). These intersections include the ways in which individual and shared values shape culture, how culture influences the levels of, and capacity for, participation, and how meaningful participation enables people to express their values. Power dynamics can also be observed across these themes, in terms of who defines values, whose culture is recognised, and who gets to participate and how, with the evidence base demonstrating the complexity of the human and socio-cultural dimensions of sustainable peatland management [3,4,60]. This complexity underscores the need for integrated rather than single-value (GHG emissions) approaches to peatland management, monitoring, and ecosystem services assessment, so as to combine ecological, socio-cultural, economic, and ethical value dimensions [6,7,61].

The literature on participation deals with participatory processes, stakeholder engagement, inclusion of civil society, and governance [3,33,62]. The research identifies ongoing tension between the emphasis on formal scientific knowledge and the lack of consideration of local knowledge in conservation efforts, which can undermine legitimacy [63,64]. The literature in this thematic area provides empirical evidence of the importance of local communities and knowledge systems for the conservation of peatlands and highlights the new values, cultures, and meanings emerging around Irish peatlands [61,65].

The values theme highlights the central role of human values in devising integrated SPM that combines the socio-cultural, environmental, and economic values of peatlands [6,66,67]. Research here identified the significance of bog landscapes for cultural values and traditions, while highlighting the historical (and ongoing) emphasis on the economic values of peatlands [68,69]. The research also highlighted that Ireland has applied a market-based approach to innovation, including peatland innovation, at the expense of grassroots innovations [65]. However, community-based projects were found to reflect a diverse range of functions and values aside from monetary value, including instrumental, intrinsic, and relational values and consideration of non-human communities [61,64,70].

The theme of culture encompassesthe arts, heritage, tradition, and folklore, as well as less visible aspects of human cultures, which includes belief systems, values, ethics, shared meaning, and worldviews [62,67,71]. Peatlands were valued for the important cultural and social benefits they generate related to sense of place, education, tangible and intangible cultural heritage history, heritage, and spirituality [72]. These cultural, experiential, and symbolic values were found to be especially important for local communities, yet are often under-represented in peatland conservation, management, and decision making [6,54].

3.3.8. Management

For centuries, Irish peatlands have been utilised and managed for a wide range of uses [67]. Historically, these included light grazing (by livestock) and extraction of peat for heating (by hand) but, more recently, peatlands have been subject to extensive use for forestry, grassland, and peat extraction (on small and industrial scales) [27]. Over the last number of decades, peatlands have also been managed as locations for wind farms [73] and aquaculture [74]. However, the environmental benefits offered by non-degraded peatlands are well recognised, and considerable efforts have been made to protect and conserve these sites, while efforts to actively restore degraded sites have gained significant momentum, particularly with regard to reducing GHG emissions, enhancing biodiversity, and protecting water quality [6].

3.3.9. Growing Media/Substrate

With the development of the professional horticulture sector in recent decades, peat has increasingly been used as a growing media in many countries where peat is a significant resource [75]. Despite the environmental consequences of draining peatlands for peat extraction (i.e., elevated CO₂ emissions, loss of biodiversity, negative impacts on water quality), published research in Ireland on alternatives to peat as a growing substrate for crops/ornamentals remains scant.

3.3.10. Policy and Law

Peatlands are increasingly recognised as valuable ecosystems and are highly significant for global efforts to combat biodiversity loss and climate change and improve water quality, while also contributing to achieving most of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals [76]. Other recent peatland-related developments include the 2024 Nature Restoration Law, which explicitly includes peatlands as a key ecosystem targeted for conservation and restoration efforts, as well as the adoption of the 2019 United Nations Environment Assembly resolution on conservation and SPM [6]. The environmental damage caused by peatland drainage is at the core of key international environmental issues.

Implementation has long been regarded as the ‘Achilles’ heel’ of the policy-making process [77]. Ireland’s challenges in implementing environmental policy and biodiversity directives have been linked to a highly centralised system of public administration alongside a technically rational ‘science first’ approach, barriers to participation, and conflicts over land rights [78,79]. Implementation responses are also strongly influenced by domestic politics, bureaucracy, and economic interests [77]. A top-down approach can also hamper acceptance of the requirements of EU directives at the local level [63]. These findings are significant in the context of renewing Ireland’s National Peatland Strategy.

Research emphasises that SPM requires collaboration across all sectors, levels of government, and research disciplines and should include all stakeholder groups [6]. Peatlands must be managed in an integrated, multi-stakeholder manner using a landscape approach with a combination of policy instruments (regulatory, incentive, and educational) to ensure success [1,7]. Research has found that serious shortcomings persist in environmental enforcement across the EU, including Ireland, which ranks among the worst performers in terms of timely implementation of European Court of Justice judgments and failure to comply with environmental obligations [78]. The absence of environmental lawyers within the Department of the Environment, Climate, and Communications compared with other EU environmental ministries was also noted as a barrier [78]. Research also points to the need for reform in how environmental crimes are viewed, and how perpetrators are sentenced and prosecuted in Ireland [80].

National Peatland strategies have been developed in many European peatland countries, but mainstreaming with overall climate, biodiversity, and land use policies is still lacking ambition and enforcement [1,81]. Ireland’s national strategy has enabled a number of major projects and initiatives to be completed but progress in the implementation of some actions has been slow [82]. A recent review of national peatland strategies in Europe found that almost all struggled with missing data, outdated data, or poor data quality [83].The main challenge for effective implementation of national peatland strategies was found to be the issue of cross-sectoral policy integration, with a key learning being the need for effective coordination of peatland policies across government departments [83]. While the government has a clear role as a key investor in peatland strategies, private or blended finance is increasingly regarded as vital for meeting restoration ambitions [81,84].

Table 2. Thematic summary of trends, recommendations/actions, and research gaps.

Theme Trends	Actions and Recommendations in Brief	Knowledge Gaps and Further Research
Biodiversity Decline of peatland biodiversity across species types and habitats.	Protection of remaining near-natural peatlands and prompt rewetting of degrading peatlands is crucial to protect threatened species; Need for a national protected blanket bog management and restoration plan; The avoidance of afforestation of peatlands, mitigation of impacts of wind farms, wildfire management, and extension of protection outside designated areas are key issues to be addressed to reverse declines in peatland biodiversity.	The contribution of Irish peatlands to biodiversity is not yet fully understood, especially in terms of invertebrates, plants, mosses, fungi, algae, and microbiota. The integration of all biodiversity elements (from landscape to microbiota) in all peatland land-use projects is needed.
Soil Ongoing loss of soil carbon from Ireland’s peatlands. Preservation of this store is critical to help Ireland meet its targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.	Drained peatlands targeted for rewetting using a site-by-site approach; Peat soils should be a priority for protection, for carbon, as well as to mitigate their Anthropocene contaminant store (especially arsenic and sulphate); Risk of future bog slides and bog bursts demands strong links between research (using remote sensing) and development (peat risk assessment studies; Soil monitoring and shareable data collection must be supported by government initiatives to improve understanding of peat soil conditions.	It is critical to learn more about the properties of peat soils to choose sustainable management practices for different land uses (forestry, agriculture, wind farms). Gaps in the current research have led to a lack of support for on-the-ground initiatives, climate change research, and legislative efforts aimed at ensuring sustainable management/restoration of peat soils as set out in the EU Soil Strategy 2030.
Climate change Degraded peatlands continue to be a source of carbon emissions (1.9 Mt carbon per year in Ireland) and thus are more vulnerable to climate change.	Drainage of peat for multiple land uses, including peat extraction, must cease; Peatland rewetting is a high priority climate mitigation action; Afforestation/re-afforestation of peat soils is not suitable climate change strategy; Mitigation measures to reduce national emissions from peatlands and achieve Ireland’s Climate Action Plan targets include the following: stronger enforcement to protect the carbon store in natural peatlands; rewetting/restoration of degraded peatlands; and the use of alternative non-peat sources for energy and horticulture.	Remote sensing expertise is urgently required to improve upscaling approaches. Further studies are needed in restored peatlands to identify the most effective restoration approaches for different ecosystem types, conditions, climates, and land use histories. More field data are needed to characterise the range of peatlands/drivers of emissions. Streamlining of data/methods in science is also needed.
Water Drained peatlands can have a detrimental impact on water quality, with studies showing loss of ecosystem services and a reduction in water quality.	Develop management tools at both site level (water treatment) and landscape level (rewetting) to help meet regional water quality standards; Regular, long-term (10+ years) monitoring of water chemistry should be an integral part of current and future peatland management practices; Enhance compliance with existing water regulations and reduce conflicts; Standardisation in monitoring water in restoration projects and lack of transparency and data sharing in publicly funded projects constrains evidence-based analysis of peatland restoration outcomes.	Long-term field-scale experiments and monitoring on multiple peatland sites and catchments are needed to prevent water degradation. Knowledge of spatial and seasonal variation of and drivers of dissolved organic carbon concentrations in streams are essential for optimum riverine water resources management. While drinking water quality standards are well regulated, there is limited attention to source protection.
Archaeology/Paleo-environment Historic peatland degradation and extraction has resulted in damage/loss of archaeological sites. Trends indicate these sites are vulnerable to human activities and climate change.	Protection of sites during peatland restoration and rehabilitation and mitigation; Management of records (e.g., Bord na Móna) for future accessibility and research; Best Practice guidance to ensure survival of the archaeo-environmental record; Stakeholder engagement, including private horticulture industry, farmers/landowners, and communities, to ensure future protection of the diversity of the archaeological sites; Regular surveys, publication, dissemination, and public involvement.	There is a need for the following: a better understanding of the impact of different land management practices on the archaeo-environmental record; evidence-based best practice guidance; an understanding the spatial distribution and density of archaeological sites; better access to data; and inter-disciplinary collaboration.
Technology/Mapping Interest in mapping peatland information derived from digital data has grown exponentially in the last two decades.	National funding to support investigation using new technologies; More accurate maps can be provided through enhanced upscaling techniques and integration of multi-sensor data (e.g., satellite and drone imagery and LIDAR), combined with machine learning algorithms, to support sustainable management of peatlands and provide tools to efficiently monitor the status of peatlands.	Many studies using new technologies perform predictive modelling but lack robust validation and uncertainty assessment. To enhance reliability and applicability, studies should be integrated with disciplines such as field ecology, hydrology, and watershed management.
Society and Culture Ongoing barriers to participation and a lack of understanding of societal dimensions of SPM hamper efforts to restore and rewet peatlands.	Develop improved structures and more diverse processes for participation in peatland conservation, restoration, and management and a culture of early and inclusive stakeholder engagement in planning for SPM; Build capacity and supports for community agency, ownership, and stewardship of peatland landscapes and to tackle power differentials and lack of trust; Develop new cross-sectoral partnerships with civil society organisations; Reduce institutional barriers such as lack of capacity, staff, and funding.	Develop research on stakeholder attitudes to peatlands and SPM, local conflicts and needs, participatory governance, mechanisms for collaboration, sustainable rural livelihoods, and just transition. Integrate action research, participatory methods, and social science, heritage, and the arts to enable integrated solutions and foreground local needs and community concerns.
Management Utilisation and degradation of Irish peatlands has turned them from a sink to a source of carbon, with half of the emissions coming from farmed drained peat soils. Ongoing decline in the condition of blanket bogs due to heavy grazing pressure.	Afforestation/re-afforestation of peat soils has been shown to be highly problematic for various reasons and should be phased out. Rewetting and restoration of previously afforested bogs needs strong policy and industry commitment; In the context of farmed peat soils, managing the water table and the seasonal grazing can bring about synergetic benefits for climate, water, and biodiversity; Peatland restoration to help mitigate the risk of peatland fires in a changing climate; Wind farm developments on peatlands need rigorous impact assessment.	Research on innovative peatland restoration funding mechanisms, a radical new policy perspective to preserve or restore near-natural bogs, and economic and social assessments of peatland restoration are required. Research is also needed on peatland fires, microbial activity, monitoring, policy instruments, and ecosystem-services accounting to develop a risk register.
Growing Media In Europe, around 70% of growing media are still peat-based.	Reducing dependencies on peat will reduce the pressure on peatlands; The supply of new substrates is urgently needed for growing media.	A comprehensive research program is critically needed to fill knowledge gaps and develop peat-free growing media for professional and domestic horticultural use.
Policy and Law Lack of implementation, enforcement and compliance is hindering SPM.	Update the National Peatlands Strategy, including blanket bog restoration, agricultural policy, results-based programs, and forestry policy; Implement and enforce EU environmental directives related to peatlands; Legal and regulatory frameworks on peat extraction must be enforced.	A policy-relevant knowledge base with mechanisms for science–policy interaction is needed. More research on policy implementation processes, paludiculture, extent and condition mapping, and data accessibility.

Table 2. Thematic summary of trends, recommendations/actions, and research gaps.

Theme Trends	Actions and Recommendations in Brief	Knowledge Gaps and Further Research
Biodiversity Decline of peatland biodiversity across species types and habitats.	Protection of remaining near-natural peatlands and prompt rewetting of degrading peatlands is crucial to protect threatened species; Need for a national protected blanket bog management and restoration plan; The avoidance of afforestation of peatlands, mitigation of impacts of wind farms, wildfire management, and extension of protection outside designated areas are key issues to be addressed to reverse declines in peatland biodiversity.	The contribution of Irish peatlands to biodiversity is not yet fully understood, especially in terms of invertebrates, plants, mosses, fungi, algae, and microbiota. The integration of all biodiversity elements (from landscape to microbiota) in all peatland land-use projects is needed.
Soil Ongoing loss of soil carbon from Ireland’s peatlands. Preservation of this store is critical to help Ireland meet its targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.	Drained peatlands targeted for rewetting using a site-by-site approach; Peat soils should be a priority for protection, for carbon, as well as to mitigate their Anthropocene contaminant store (especially arsenic and sulphate); Risk of future bog slides and bog bursts demands strong links between research (using remote sensing) and development (peat risk assessment studies; Soil monitoring and shareable data collection must be supported by government initiatives to improve understanding of peat soil conditions.	It is critical to learn more about the properties of peat soils to choose sustainable management practices for different land uses (forestry, agriculture, wind farms). Gaps in the current research have led to a lack of support for on-the-ground initiatives, climate change research, and legislative efforts aimed at ensuring sustainable management/restoration of peat soils as set out in the EU Soil Strategy 2030.
Climate change Degraded peatlands continue to be a source of carbon emissions (1.9 Mt carbon per year in Ireland) and thus are more vulnerable to climate change.	Drainage of peat for multiple land uses, including peat extraction, must cease; Peatland rewetting is a high priority climate mitigation action; Afforestation/re-afforestation of peat soils is not suitable climate change strategy; Mitigation measures to reduce national emissions from peatlands and achieve Ireland’s Climate Action Plan targets include the following: stronger enforcement to protect the carbon store in natural peatlands; rewetting/restoration of degraded peatlands; and the use of alternative non-peat sources for energy and horticulture.	Remote sensing expertise is urgently required to improve upscaling approaches. Further studies are needed in restored peatlands to identify the most effective restoration approaches for different ecosystem types, conditions, climates, and land use histories. More field data are needed to characterise the range of peatlands/drivers of emissions. Streamlining of data/methods in science is also needed.
Water Drained peatlands can have a detrimental impact on water quality, with studies showing loss of ecosystem services and a reduction in water quality.	Develop management tools at both site level (water treatment) and landscape level (rewetting) to help meet regional water quality standards; Regular, long-term (10+ years) monitoring of water chemistry should be an integral part of current and future peatland management practices; Enhance compliance with existing water regulations and reduce conflicts; Standardisation in monitoring water in restoration projects and lack of transparency and data sharing in publicly funded projects constrains evidence-based analysis of peatland restoration outcomes.	Long-term field-scale experiments and monitoring on multiple peatland sites and catchments are needed to prevent water degradation. Knowledge of spatial and seasonal variation of and drivers of dissolved organic carbon concentrations in streams are essential for optimum riverine water resources management. While drinking water quality standards are well regulated, there is limited attention to source protection.
Archaeology/Paleo-environment Historic peatland degradation and extraction has resulted in damage/loss of archaeological sites. Trends indicate these sites are vulnerable to human activities and climate change.	Protection of sites during peatland restoration and rehabilitation and mitigation; Management of records (e.g., Bord na Móna) for future accessibility and research; Best Practice guidance to ensure survival of the archaeo-environmental record; Stakeholder engagement, including private horticulture industry, farmers/landowners, and communities, to ensure future protection of the diversity of the archaeological sites; Regular surveys, publication, dissemination, and public involvement.	There is a need for the following: a better understanding of the impact of different land management practices on the archaeo-environmental record; evidence-based best practice guidance; an understanding the spatial distribution and density of archaeological sites; better access to data; and inter-disciplinary collaboration.
Technology/Mapping Interest in mapping peatland information derived from digital data has grown exponentially in the last two decades.	National funding to support investigation using new technologies; More accurate maps can be provided through enhanced upscaling techniques and integration of multi-sensor data (e.g., satellite and drone imagery and LIDAR), combined with machine learning algorithms, to support sustainable management of peatlands and provide tools to efficiently monitor the status of peatlands.	Many studies using new technologies perform predictive modelling but lack robust validation and uncertainty assessment. To enhance reliability and applicability, studies should be integrated with disciplines such as field ecology, hydrology, and watershed management.
Society and Culture Ongoing barriers to participation and a lack of understanding of societal dimensions of SPM hamper efforts to restore and rewet peatlands.	Develop improved structures and more diverse processes for participation in peatland conservation, restoration, and management and a culture of early and inclusive stakeholder engagement in planning for SPM; Build capacity and supports for community agency, ownership, and stewardship of peatland landscapes and to tackle power differentials and lack of trust; Develop new cross-sectoral partnerships with civil society organisations; Reduce institutional barriers such as lack of capacity, staff, and funding.	Develop research on stakeholder attitudes to peatlands and SPM, local conflicts and needs, participatory governance, mechanisms for collaboration, sustainable rural livelihoods, and just transition. Integrate action research, participatory methods, and social science, heritage, and the arts to enable integrated solutions and foreground local needs and community concerns.
Management Utilisation and degradation of Irish peatlands has turned them from a sink to a source of carbon, with half of the emissions coming from farmed drained peat soils. Ongoing decline in the condition of blanket bogs due to heavy grazing pressure.	Afforestation/re-afforestation of peat soils has been shown to be highly problematic for various reasons and should be phased out. Rewetting and restoration of previously afforested bogs needs strong policy and industry commitment; In the context of farmed peat soils, managing the water table and the seasonal grazing can bring about synergetic benefits for climate, water, and biodiversity; Peatland restoration to help mitigate the risk of peatland fires in a changing climate; Wind farm developments on peatlands need rigorous impact assessment.	Research on innovative peatland restoration funding mechanisms, a radical new policy perspective to preserve or restore near-natural bogs, and economic and social assessments of peatland restoration are required. Research is also needed on peatland fires, microbial activity, monitoring, policy instruments, and ecosystem-services accounting to develop a risk register.
Growing Media In Europe, around 70% of growing media are still peat-based.	Reducing dependencies on peat will reduce the pressure on peatlands; The supply of new substrates is urgently needed for growing media.	A comprehensive research program is critically needed to fill knowledge gaps and develop peat-free growing media for professional and domestic horticultural use.
Policy and Law Lack of implementation, enforcement and compliance is hindering SPM.	Update the National Peatlands Strategy, including blanket bog restoration, agricultural policy, results-based programs, and forestry policy; Implement and enforce EU environmental directives related to peatlands; Legal and regulatory frameworks on peat extraction must be enforced.	A policy-relevant knowledge base with mechanisms for science–policy interaction is needed. More research on policy implementation processes, paludiculture, extent and condition mapping, and data accessibility.

4. Discussion: Strategic Recommendations for the Sustainable Management of Peatlands

The findings of this study provide researchers, policy makers, and civil society with accessible, reliable, and up to date evidence for SPM. They also provide a replicable methodology for other countries and jurisdictions interested in the sustainable management of their peatland resource. The results also present a broad overview of where gaps in Irish peatland knowledge still exist. Research themes such as biodiversity, management, the paleo-environment, climate, water, and soil already have well-defined agendas; urgent action is needed to secure long-term funding and coordination to ensure that this critical work can continue without interruption. In contrast, research on the cultural, societal, policy, and legal dimensions of SPM is less well established and requires institutional funding and more visibility in research calls at the national and EU levels. Applied research directly involving farmers and landowners (rewetting agricultural or forest peat soils and new initiatives, such as paludiculture) is also scarce, as is research on growing media. This study also highlighted the issue of poor visibility of key publications, especially from governmental institutions, which make it critical that older publications are digitised to help inform future policy. The incomplete evidence base in recent Irish peatland literature reviews highlights the urgent need to establish systematic knowledge-sharing mechanisms between scientists and between scientists and stakeholders, especially policymakers.

Arising from analysis of this evidence base, four strategic recommendations were identified to support researchers, civil society, and policymakers to implement the conditions necessary for SPM (Figure 7). While grounded in the Irish context, these recommendations, such as the need for effective policy implementation, policy coherence, longevity, and collaborative governance, address challenges that are relevant across jurisdictions [1,83]. Moreover, they underscore the importance of sustained, long-term investment in research and funding that spans different peatland types and geographical contexts, and the importance of equity, capacity building, and inclusion of diverse voices for equitable and sustainable peatland research and practice [85]. The four cross-cutting foundational pillars identified in this research (accountability, longevity, equity, and holistic knowledge) are critical to achieving SPM and are of relevance to all disciplines and sectors.

4.1. Accountability: Policy Implementation, Coherence, and Collaborative Governance

Strengthening governance and implementing global and national peatland policies is crucial to protect peatlands and reduce GHG emissions. The poor trends related to many peatland indicators are summarised in Table 2 for Ireland. These trends are reflected in the EU, where almost 50% of the peatland area is degraded, making Europe the second largest GHG emitter from drained peatlands [1]. Conservation of remaining near-natural peatlands and the prompt rewetting of degraded peatlands is critical to mitigate climate change (including preservation of the carbon store), protect biodiversity, and ensure good water quality [6]. Compliance with existing regulations and the eradication of deficiencies or conflicts in current legislation is critical. This includes the elimination of subsidies and other financial support for economic activities that directly or indirectly degrade peatlands and their ecosystem services.

Several impediments to achieving SPM are evident in the legal frameworks and regulations related to water, forestry, agriculture, and planning. Considerable evidence points to the unsustainability of afforested peatlands [6]. Decisions on future land use must be site-specific, account for the full range of ecosystem services, and show a clear regard for sensitive receptors, i.e., the ecological status of downstream waterbodies, protected drinking water areas, and protected habitats and species. Successful national peatland strategies and, therefore successful SPM, require the integration of policies across all governance levels. In Ireland, the cross-departmental committee in charge of implementing the National Peatland Strategy has a key role to play in communicating and sharing information between departments, thereby promoting a ‘whole government’ approach to SPM. Across the peatland stakeholder landscape in Ireland, more collaboration is needed, both horizontally and vertically, between research disciplines and projects, between sectors, and from national to local levels [6] Meaningful engagement with landowners is important early in the collaborative process for peatland restoration projects. More sustainable models for agricultural policy, such as the implementation of results-based payments and payments for ecosystem services, are also needed for successful SPM [35,86].

4.2. Longevity: Long-Term Monitoring and Funding of SPM Activities

The provision of sufficient recurrent funding is paramount to ensure full implementation of regulations through the relevant national authorities in Ireland. Funding should also cover long-term monitoring, which is not currently supported by national and European funding platforms. It is critical the Irish government provide a long-term management plan and associated financial frameworks to secure the continuity of sustainable management of shared peatland resources, including designated and non-designated peatlands. The removal of unsustainable subsidies will generate revenue, which along with market-based instruments and other pricing reforms, can help incentivise SPM. The creation of subsidies and fiscal mechanisms that incentivise SPM activities (not only restoration of protected sites but also rewetting of degraded peat soils) should add to the limited public funding currently available and should be complemented by private finance [87].

Well-designed carbon, biodiversity, and water credit schemes could offer key incentives, which would enable businesses, organisations, and individuals to invest in land management and restoration schemes [88]. Furthermore, it is widely acknowledged that such schemes would require support from the communities located around peatlands and thus funding should be enhanced for local communities [70]. In addition to peatland community engagement schemes, incentives to promote citizen science initiatives could be an efficient means to help with long-term monitoring around the network of European sites, as well as improving peatland literacy.

The advent of digital technologies could also enhance environmental and ecological sensing and provide robust methods to track and monitor peatland land use and land-use changes and management practices over time [17]. This is critical for extensively drained blanket bog areas, for example. However, several challenges must be overcome before the widespread deployment of these technologies for all peatland projects is possible. These include the provision of funding for training and capacity building (attracting and keeping trained researchers in Ireland) and ecological skills for nationwide ground truthing. Finally, a high priority action is the establishment of a public GIS database of rewetted/restored peatland projects and associated datasets incorporating all ecological datasets collected from publicly funded environmental assessments of projects and plans involving peatlands. This could support the valuation and forecasting of land-use management approaches and alternatives, guide future restoration projects, and inform science-based policy decision-making.

4.3. Equity: Knowledge Exchange, Communication, and Capacity Building

In Ireland and other national contexts, questions of value will be key to deciding future land uses of peatlands. Future sustainable land use involves peatland restoration and rewetting, which require societal acceptance, reflection on values, and ongoing community stewardship if they are to be sustainable and equitable. Understanding people’s values is crucial for securing societal acceptance and support for the restoration and rewetting of peatlands [89]. Attitudes toward peatlands are deeply embedded historically, culturally, and socially, and so, education, collaboration, and capacity building are required to foster changes in how peatlands are valued by society [67]. This, in turn, will influence land use, decision making, and environmental stewardship for peatlands given that both direct (land use change, climate change, exploitation) and indirect (governance, institutions, economic, and socio-cultural) drivers of change are underpinned by societal values and behaviours [14]. Such change is already visible in emerging social networks (for example, the Community Wetlands Forum) and new cultural narratives around peatlands that signal important shifts in community and societal values [61]. Accordingly, Ireland provides a valuable case study in the transition from unsustainable extractive management towards more sustainable approaches that enhance peatland ecosystem services and the well-being of local communities. Such transitions must be supported, scaled up and mainstreamed into wider society via communication, knowledge exchange, and capacity building initiatives [90]. However, differences endure in the power, authority, and access to resources that different stakeholders and groups have, often stemming from historical, social, and political processes [63,85]. This is especially significant in terms of local concerns over the allocation of EU Just Transition funding, contested developments on peatlands, and a perceived disconnect between state-led approaches and community visions [33,64]. Institutions must work to create ‘cultures of participation’ and to promote a shift from top-down management to multi-level partnerships where the state enables civil society to act. Sustainable pathways require support for farmers, landowners, and communities to act as agents of change and articulate their own visions of the future, as well as holding those in power accountable for delivering on their promises and responsibilities. Conversation and dialogue are essential tools to achieve SPM that should be prioritised and integrated into restoration planning via workshops, outreach events, and knowledge exchange initiatives.

4.4. Holistic Knowledge: A New Paradigm for Future Research on Peatlands

The results of this review suggest that to ensure SPM for current and future generations, numerous critical gaps must be addressed that will require inter-disciplinary and trans-disciplinary research. To support broader societal, environmental, and policy impact, three overarching recommendations are proposed to advance a new paradigm for peatland research in Ireland (see Section 4.4.1, Section 4.4.2 and Section 4.4.3 below), with broader transferability to other national and international contexts.

4.4.1. Empower Stakeholders via Participatory Methodologies, Engaged Research, and Knowledge Co-Production

The findings of this research support the call for inclusion, transparency, and reflection on power dynamics in research through collaborative partnerships, participatory methodologies, and engaged research approaches [85]. Engaged research involves collaboration with a community (including local, business, and farming communities) to investigate societal challenges and encompasses a range of approaches and methods. As evidence from this research shows, it is vital to support and build societal partnerships, given the limited capacity and financial resources of many civil society groups. There is also huge demand for ecological and practical knowledge and information in the farming, business, and wider communities [91]. Transdisciplinary approaches to the co-production of knowledge bring actors from outside academia into the research process to integrate the best available knowledge, reconcile values and preferences, and create ownership of solutions.

When commissioning and funding research, the inclusion of arts, humanities, and social science disciplines alongside economic and ecological disciplines can help to provide a deeper understanding of the cultural and social dimensions of SPM [92]. These disciplines include a spectrum of methodologies that support engagement with stakeholders and provide insights into barriers to the implementation of conservation policies and measures on the ground. They aim to move from ‘information and consultation’ towards ‘collaboration and empowerment’, via approaches such as action research, i.e., research that is initiated and driven by communities that are involved at all stages of the research design where feasible [85]. Higher education institutions should also create better structures to facilitate impact, knowledge exchange, and the communication of research, going beyond the narrow focus on academic impact (i.e., publications) as a measure of success. Finally, for effective knowledge exchange, consideration should be given to the legacy of projects to ensure ongoing flows of information that may be necessary beyond initial research funding [90]. This includes digitising past research not available online within all Irish institutions.

4.4.2. Integrate Principles of Open Science and Mechanisms for Sharing Data/Knowledge

Open science policies and practices have transformed how research is designed, managed, shared, and assessed, such that it is no longer sufficient to publish the results of publicly funded research without also making the data that support and validate the conclusions as open and accessible as possible [93]. The principles outlined in Ireland’s National Action Plan for Open Research should be incorporated into future research on Irish peatlands to ensure environmental data are more accessible and knowledge of peatland projects and their outputs is publicly available. The stakeholder survey identified the lack of access to data in semi-state agencies and state projects (e.g., LIFE projects) and a lack of willingness to share data between institutions as issues that must be addressed. Publication of findings by the private sector and semi-state companies with land banks should be mandatory to disseminate findings and facilitate knowledge exchange.

Accordingly, there is a need to develop a portal or repository for peatland project outputs and research and to ensure that these data are secure and accessible so that peatland knowledge can be harnessed into the future. The establishment of a National Peatlands Centre of Excellence, led by the University of Galway, is a positive step in this regard and platforms such as PeatSense also show promise in improving collaboration and data sharing. However, such initiatives require long-term funding and support to succeed and should focus not only on data but also on building a coordinated network for scientists and researchers to work with wider society and all peatland stakeholders. This will enable multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and trans-disciplinary collaboration, as well as intergenerational learning between more established and early career researchers. Links with European and international peatland projects and initiatives are also important to harness already existing knowledge and best practice and create cross-cultural partnerships (e.g., the PeatDataHub (University of Leeds); the Global Peatland Database (Greifswald Mire Centre); and the Global Peatlands Assessment Database.

4.4.3. Consider the Opportunities and Challenges of Using Emerging Technologies

The use of digital technologies to map peatlands, including remote sensing (e.g., satellite imagery, radiometric), other digital mapping (historical maps), and AI (machine learning) technologies has grown exponentially in the last two decades [17]. Responses to the researcher survey identified the significant opportunities for leveraging machine learning, AI, and EO/remote sensing technologies along with in-situ measurements to monitor peatlands on a large scale in Ireland. Such technologies could be effectively employed for the robust monitoring and verification of peatland restoration and carbon credit schemes, with state regulation of carbon credits being seen as a necessary oversight mechanism [58]. Employing such technologies would require ongoing training in a rapidly evolving field and platforms that incorporate integrated data streams (to efficiently share and utilise the data) into model development and help to validate model predictions versus observations. Consideration should also be given to the infrastructure required to store and manage data. In this review, researchers cautioned against an over-emphasis on ‘data-tech-as-solution’ to environmental problems given the environmental externalities produced by data generation [69].

5. Conclusions

The outputs of this research provide a baseline of evidence for SPM in Ireland so that researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders can work together to take the urgent action that is needed to protect, manage, and conserve these ecosystems. The project integrated current available knowledge, identified gaps in research, and proposed new directions for future inquiry. This holistic approach provided key insights that fall into one of four strategic recommendations, each serving as a foundational pillar to SPM. The PHI database and glossary aim to raise awareness amongst researchers of previous studies and can help overcome academic silos and facilitate incorporation of insights from a range of disciplines. Further development and expansion of the database is recommended, building on the PHI project framework, and evolving through successive updates via the replicable methodology.

This evidence synthesis has several limitations that should be acknowledged. Firstly, it focused solely on research from Ireland, which limited the ability to draw on broader European experience, particularly in areas like paludiculture, where research is more advanced in countries such as Germany. It is also worth noting that certain key publications were missed, despite the use of several databases and the addition of manual searching. Secondly, the review was restricted to publications post-2000 which may have excluded relevant historical knowledge. While this decision facilitated a focus on contemporary research aligned with recent policy and environmental challenges, it has likely excluded valuable insights from earlier studies. Future work could expand on this by digitising and including the older literature and adopting more integrative, cross-disciplinary search strategies.

The recommendations and lessons learned in this project arose from an Irish case study but are widely applicable. Future research may incorporate new methodologies for evidence synthesis, including Artificial Intelligence, to rapidly update and share information. Critically, knowledge should be utilised to create societal acceptance of SPM, which involves more equitable and successful peatland conservation and utilisation outcomes. The anthropogenic impact on peatland ecosystems has led to the loss of much of this iconic Irish landscape. Reimagining peatland management for the future will involve taking account a diversity of values and perspectives to manage trade-offs, create synergies, and develop multifunctional landscapes. It is now imperative to nurture a paradigm shift towards regenerative policies, practices, and land use for peatlands through impactful research, collaborative societal partnerships, and strong policy implementation.