Strong Gradients in Weak Magnetic Fields Induce DOLLOP Formation in Tap Water
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Magnetic Water Treatment
1.2. Water Core Magnets (WCMs)
1.3. Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
1.4. Motivation for the Research Presented
1.4.1. WCM as Treatment Device
1.4.2. Tap Water as Sample
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Treatment Procedure
2.2. Tap Water Analysis
2.3. Impedance Analysis
2.4. SEM/EDX
2.5. Magnetic Field Measurements and Visualisations
2.6. Laser Scattering Measurements
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Tap Water Analysis
3.2. Magnetic Fields
3.3. Evaporation
3.4. Complex Impedance
- Case a: No precipitation
- Case b: precipitation
3.5. Laser Scattering
3.6. SEM/EDX
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BNC | Bayonet Neill–Concelman connector |
C | Capacitance |
C | Coey criterion |
CPE | Constant phase element |
cryo-TEM | Cryo transmission electron microscopy |
DOLLOP | liquid-like oxyanion polymer |
EDX | Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy |
EIS | Electrical impedance spectroscopy |
IC | Ion chromatography |
IC | Inorganic carbon |
ICP | Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy |
K | X-ray electron shell notation |
L | X-ray electron shell notation |
LOQ | Limit of quantification |
Milli-Q | trademark created by Millipore Corporation to describe 'ultrapure' water of "Type 1", as defined by ISO 3696 |
MDPI | Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute |
NPOC | Non-purgable organic carbon |
R | Resistance |
Raq | Resistance of water |
RGB | Red,green, blue (additive colour model) |
SEM | Scanning electron microscopy |
TC | Total carbon |
TOC | Total organic carbon |
W | Warburg impedance |
WCM | Water core magnet |
Z | complex impedance |
φ | phase |
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Parameter | Number |
---|---|
Number of experiments | 16 |
Measurements per sample | ≥3 |
Frequencies per measurement | 65 |
Parameters per frequency | 2 |
Significant difference (95% confidence interval) | 15 |
Parameter | Untreated | Treated | Absolute Difference | Relative Difference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R/Ω | 238 | ±9 | 238 | ±6 | 0 | 0% |
Aw/Ω·s−0.5 | 22,593 | ±11 | 21,202 | ±511 | −1391 | −6% |
CPE P × 107 | 2.01 | ±0.32 | 4.37 | ±0.37 | 2.36 | +118% |
CPE n | 1.00 | ±0.02 | 0.97 | ±0.01 | −0.031 | −3% |
C/pF | 17.7 | ±0.98 | 16.8 | ±1.4 | −0.989 | −6% |
Raq/Ω | 870 | ±9 | 951 | ±8 | 81 | +9% |
Parameter | Untreated | Treated | Absolute Difference | Relative Difference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R/Ω | 232 | ±7 | 232 | ±10 | 0 | 0% |
Aw/Ω·s−0.5 | 21,721 | ±10 | 24,967 | ±1064 | 3246 | +15% |
CPE P · 107 | 3.63 | ±0.34 | 1.10 | ±0.25 | −2.53 | −70% |
CPE n | 0.98 | ±0.01 | 1.00 | ±0.03 | 0.019 | +2% |
C/pF | 16.9 | ±0.65 | 17.3 | ±1.1 | 0.342 | +2% |
Raq/Ω | 917 | ±7 | 877 | ±11 | −40 | −4% |
Case | Δ Raq, av /Ω | ERaq, av /Ω |
---|---|---|
a (8 experiments) | 31 ± 9 | 14 ± 3 |
b (8 experiments) | −39 ± 9 | 13 ± 2 |
Experiment | Untreated/104 Counts mL−1 | Treated/104 Counts mL−1 | Difference Treated vs. Untreated |
---|---|---|---|
Experiment 1 | 2.72 ± 0.02 | 3.01 ± 0.04 | P < 0.001 |
Experiment 2 | 5.17 ± 0.02 | 7.00 ± 0.10 | P < 0.001 |
Element, Line | Weight % | Atom % |
---|---|---|
Carbon, K | 13.23 | 18.87 |
Oxygen, K | 68.28 | 73.11 |
Magnesium, K | 0.40 | 0.28 |
Phosphorus, K | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Sulfur, K | 0.01 | 0.01 |
Potassium, K | 0.06 | 0.02 |
Calcium, K | 18.03 | 7.71 |
Iron, L | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Total | 100.00 | 100.00 |
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Sammer, M.; Kamp, C.; Paulitsch-Fuchs, A.H.; Wexler, A.D.; Buisman, C.J.N.; Fuchs, E.C. Strong Gradients in Weak Magnetic Fields Induce DOLLOP Formation in Tap Water. Water 2016, 8, 79. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8030079
Sammer M, Kamp C, Paulitsch-Fuchs AH, Wexler AD, Buisman CJN, Fuchs EC. Strong Gradients in Weak Magnetic Fields Induce DOLLOP Formation in Tap Water. Water. 2016; 8(3):79. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8030079
Chicago/Turabian StyleSammer, Martina, Cees Kamp, Astrid H. Paulitsch-Fuchs, Adam D. Wexler, Cees J. N. Buisman, and Elmar C. Fuchs. 2016. "Strong Gradients in Weak Magnetic Fields Induce DOLLOP Formation in Tap Water" Water 8, no. 3: 79. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8030079