Survey of School Direct-Drinking Water Access for Children and Youth in Shanghai, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Measures
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Study’s Schools
3.2. Profiles of Key Components Regarding Direct-Drinking Water Access
3.3. Profiles of Key Components Regarding Direct-Drinking Water Quality
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total Samples n (%) | School Type | School Location | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primary Schools n (%) | Middle Schools n (%) | High Schools n (%) | p Value * | Central Area | Surrounding Area | p Value * | ||
Water dispensers’ characteristics and features | ||||||||
Modes of water treatment | 0.072 | 0.172 | ||||||
Nanofiltration | 135 (80.8) | 76 (86.4) | 34 (73.9) | 25 (75.8) | 61 (84.7) | 74 (77.9) | ||
Reverse osmosis | 16 (9.6) | 4 (4.5) | 8 (17.4) | 4 (12.1) | 7 (9.7) | 9 (9.5) | ||
Barreled/bottled drinking water | 13 (7.8) | 8 (9.1) | 3 (6.5) | 2 (6.1) | 2 (2.8) | 11 (11.6) | ||
Mixed | 3 (1.8) | 0 (0) | 1 (2.2) | 2 (6.1) | 2 (2.8) | 1 (1.1) | ||
Water temperature set in 20 °C to 40 °C | 33 (19.8) | 20 (22.7) | 8 (17.4) | 5 (15.2) | 0.679 | 10 (13.9) | 23 (19.8) | 0.097 |
Clean and functioning | 122 (73.1) | 67 (76.1) | 33 (71.7) | 22 (66.7) | 0.563 | 49 (68.1) | 73 (76.8) | 0.205 |
Posting usage prompts | 90 (53.9) | 41 (46.6) | 28 (60.9) | 21 (63.6) | 0.132 | 39 (54.2) | 51 (53.7) | 0.951 |
Usage of non-slip or waterproof materials around | 137 (82.0) | 72 (81.8) | 40 (87.0) | 25 (75.8) | 0.440 | 60 (83.3) | 77 (81.1) | 0.704 |
Water dispensers’ location and placement | ||||||||
Coverage of key high-traffic areas | 152 (91.0) | 78 (88.6) | 43 (93.5) | 31 (93.9) | 0.532 | 69 (95.8) | 83 (87.4) | 0.058 |
Average less than 45 students served by per faucet | 115 (68.9) | 57 (64.8) | 31 (67.4) | 27 (81.8) | 0.191 | 49 (68.1) | 66 (69.5) | 0.854 |
Water dispensers’ upkeep and maintenance | ||||||||
Frequency of water quality testing | 0.069 | 0.010 | ||||||
More than or monthly | 42 (25.1) | 18 (20.5) | 14 (30.4) | 10 (30.3) | 26 (36.1) | 16 (16.8) | ||
Monthly | 23 (13.8) | 7 (8.0) | 9 (19.6) | 7 (21.2) | 11 (15.3) | 12 (12.6) | ||
Less than monthly but at least twice a year | 83 (49.7) | 54 (61.4) | 18 (39.1) | 11 (33.3) | 31 (43.1) | 52 (54.7) | ||
Seldomly tested or not | 19 (11.4) | 9 (10.2) | 5 (10.9) | 5 (15.2) | 4 (5.6) | 15 (15.8) | ||
Training for school personnel | 158 (94.6) | 82 (93.2) | 44 (95.7) | 32 (97.0) | 63 | 95 | ||
Frequency of dispenser cleaning | 0.035 | 0.689 | ||||||
More than or monthly | 26 (15.6) | 9 (10.2) | 12 (26.1) | 5 (15.2) | 10 (13.9) | 16 (16.8) | ||
Monthly | 39 (23.4) | 20 (22.7) | 9 (19.6) | 10 (30.3) | 18 (25.0) | 21 (22.1) | ||
Less than monthly but at least twice a year | 86 (51.5) | 54 (61.4) | 20 (43.5) | 12 (36.4) | 39 (54.2) | 47 (49.5) | ||
Seldomly tested or not | 16 (9.6) | 5 (5.7) | 5 (10.9) | 6 (18.2) | 5 (6.9) | 11 (11.6) | ||
Water education and promotion | ||||||||
Public display of water quality testing results | 134 (80.2) | 72 (81.8) | 37 (80.4) | 25 (75.8) | 0.757 | 64 (88.9) | 70 (73.7) | 0.015 |
Regular activities for students | 126 (75.4) | 68 (77.3) | 35 (76.1) | 23 (69.7) | 0.685 | 53 (73.6) | 73 (76.8) | 0.631 |
Total | 167 (100) | 88 (52.7) | 46 (27.5) | 33 (19.8) | 72 (43) | 95 (57) |
Total Bacteria Count (CFU/100mL) | Arsenic (mg/L) | Aluminum (mg/L) | Zinc (mg/L) | Hardness (mg/L) | pH | COD (mg/L) | TDS (mg/L) | Total Chlorine (mg/L) | Turbidity (NTU) | Temperature (Degrees Celsius) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Direct drinking water (Outlets) n = 30 | MIN | ND | ND | ND | ND | 1.0 | 6.94 | 0.34 | 13.0 | - | 0.10 | 17.0 |
MAX | 320 | 0.0010 | 0.04 | 0.26 | 123 | 7.58 | 1.36 | 210 | - | 0.18 | 94.0 | |
MEAN | 31.4 | 0.0006 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 70.1 | 7.31 | 0.87 | 120 | - | 0.13 | 47.9 | |
MEDIAN | ND | ND | ND | 0.03 | 104 | 7.40 | 1.26 | 185 | - | 0.12 | 38.5 | |
D.F. | 40% | 20% | 27% | 83% | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Tap water (Inlets) n = 23 | MIN | ND | ND | ND | ND | 122 | 7.42 | 1.52 | 217 | 0.09 | 0.10 | - |
MAX | 17.0 | 0.0020 | 0.06 | 0.20 | 133 | 7.73 | 1.96 | 274 | 0.82 | 0.52 | - | |
MEAN | 2.1 | 0.0006 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 127 | 7.60 | 1.77 | 253 | 0.20 | 0.15 | - | |
MEDIAN | ND | ND | ND | ND | 125 | 7.60 | 1.84 | 257 | 0.13 | 0.12 | - | |
D.F. | 26% | 22% | 43% | 30% | - | - | - | - | - | |||
p Value ** | 0.116 | 0.819 | 0.119 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | - | 0.771 | - | |
Local standards [21] | 50 | 0.01 | 0.15 | 1.0 | 250 | 6.5–8.5 | 2 | 500 | 0.05 | 0.5 | ||
WHO guideline value [23] | - | 0.01 | 0.1 a | 4.0 b | 200 c | 6.5–8.5 d | - | 600 e | 0.2 f | 0.3 g | - |
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Zhu, Y.-S.; Hu, B.-Q.; Zheng, R.; Wang, Y.-J.; Zheng, W.-W.; Yang, M.-J. Survey of School Direct-Drinking Water Access for Children and Youth in Shanghai, China. Water 2025, 17, 1717. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111717
Zhu Y-S, Hu B-Q, Zheng R, Wang Y-J, Zheng W-W, Yang M-J. Survey of School Direct-Drinking Water Access for Children and Youth in Shanghai, China. Water. 2025; 17(11):1717. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111717
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhu, Yuan-Shen, Bing-Qing Hu, Rong Zheng, Ya-Juan Wang, Wei-Wei Zheng, and Min-Juan Yang. 2025. "Survey of School Direct-Drinking Water Access for Children and Youth in Shanghai, China" Water 17, no. 11: 1717. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111717
APA StyleZhu, Y.-S., Hu, B.-Q., Zheng, R., Wang, Y.-J., Zheng, W.-W., & Yang, M.-J. (2025). Survey of School Direct-Drinking Water Access for Children and Youth in Shanghai, China. Water, 17(11), 1717. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111717