A Comparative Study on the Coevolution and Drivers of Environmental Risks and Man–Land Relationship between China and the United States from the Perspective of LUCC
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Sources
2.3. Research Method
- (1)
- Unit land natural property index:
- (2)
- Social attribute index per unit of land:
- (3)
- Human-land relationship intensity index.
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Environmental Risks
4.1.1. The Emergence of Environmental Problems
4.1.2. The Aggravation of Environmental Problems
4.1.3. The Mitigation of Environmental Problems
4.2. Reasons for Differences in the Man–Land Relationship between China and the United States
4.2.1. Land
4.2.2. Population
4.2.3. Technology
4.2.4. Policy
4.3. Evolution of Man–Land Relationship in China and the United States
5. Conclusions
- (1)
- On the time scale, China and the United States exhibit similarities in the land development process. The total cultivated land area has shown an upward trend, whereas forests and grassland areas have generally showed a downward trend in both counties. Land cover changes in the two countries can be divided into three different stages according to the speed of change. In this process, the area of forest land in China has been reduced faster than that of grassland, mainly due to the development of mountain land. The area of grassland in the United States has been diminished much faster than that of forest land, mainly due to the migration of the Great Plains in the Midwest. Regarding the spatial scale, the change in cultivated land area in China is primarily based on increased intensity of cultivation. The evolution of cultivated land in the United States is based mainly on expansion of cultivated land. China’s land reclamation space has gradually expanded from the east to the northeast and northwest. The US land reclamation space has grown from east to west.
- (2)
- The differences in land cover change between China and the United States are mainly caused by differences in social developments. Land cover change is an external manifestation of the human-land relationship. Natural and social feedback can be used to interpret the characteristics of human-land relationships. Among them, natural feedback is mainly manifested in environmental problems such as ecological damage and environmental pollution. Social feedback is primarily reflected in social conditions such as policy making and demographic changes. As a result of land development, environmental problems have emerged, but ecological awareness still needs to be improved. As productivity increases and environmental issues become more severe, environmental awareness begins to take shape. The productivity level continued to increase in the later period, and environmental problems became more complicated as awareness about environmental protection continued to grow.
- (3)
- Land cover and the relationship between man and land in China and the United States are affected by a combination of natural and social factors. Among them, the land and political elements are relatively stable, whereas the population and technological factors are relatively active. China is dominated by population factors, and the United States is dominated by technological factors. In addition, the evolution of human-land relations differs between the two countries, with some similarities. China experienced a slow and in-depth understanding of the environment in the early stage, with a rapid and dramatic transformation of the environment in the later stage. The United States experienced a rapid understanding of the environment in the early stage, with advancement to the stage of transforming and protecting the environment. The man–land relationship in the two countries has gone through stages of relying on the environment, understanding the environment, and changing the environment to protect the environment. This evolution is in line with the laws of social development, which state that human beings constantly recognize, utilize, and adapt to nature. As a complex system, human-land relations continue to develop in the unity of opposites.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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China | Year | 1700–1880 | 1880–1960 | 1960–2000 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cultivated land | Average growth rate per annum | 0.22 | 0.17 | 0.53 |
Slow growth | Slow growth | Fluctuating growth | ||
Forest land | Average growth rate per annum | −0.23 | −1.08 | 1.70 |
Decrease | Decrease | Fluctuating growth | ||
Grassland | Average growth rate per annum | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.11 |
Slight decrease | Slight decrease | Decrease |
USA | Year | 1700–1850 | 1850–1930 | 1930–2000 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cultivated land | Average growth rate per annum | 2.82 | 1.91 | −0.06 |
Rapid growth | Rapid growth | Fluctuating decrease | ||
Forest land | Average growth rate per annum | −0.07 | −0.28 | −0.06 |
Slight decrease | Decrease | Slight decrease | ||
Grassland | Average growth rate per annum | −0.01 | −0.64 | −0.23 |
Slight decrease | Decrease | Decrease |
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Zhao, L.; Wang, W.; Li, M.; Xu, G. A Comparative Study on the Coevolution and Drivers of Environmental Risks and Man–Land Relationship between China and the United States from the Perspective of LUCC. Atmosphere 2023, 14, 288. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14020288
Zhao L, Wang W, Li M, Xu G. A Comparative Study on the Coevolution and Drivers of Environmental Risks and Man–Land Relationship between China and the United States from the Perspective of LUCC. Atmosphere. 2023; 14(2):288. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14020288
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhao, Liang, Wei Wang, Meijiao Li, and Gaofeng Xu. 2023. "A Comparative Study on the Coevolution and Drivers of Environmental Risks and Man–Land Relationship between China and the United States from the Perspective of LUCC" Atmosphere 14, no. 2: 288. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14020288