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19 November 2025

Organic Fertilization vs. the Quality of Basil Raw Material

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and
Institute of Horticultural Production, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
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Agronomy2025, 15(11), 2656;https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112656
This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition
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Abstract

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the most widely cultivated herbal plants, valued in the food and pharmaceutical industries for its abundance of bioactive compounds, and also as an ornamental plant. The contents of its bioactive compounds are strongly influenced by both environmental and anthropogenic factors, among which fertilization plays a key role. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different application doses (5, 10, 15, and 20 g·dm−3 of substrate) of an organic fertilizer (granulated cattle manure) on the fresh biomass yield and quality of two basil varieties: lemon basil and cinnamon basil. The applied manure doses significantly affected the fresh biomass yield of O. basilicum L. Both basil variety and fertilizer dose were found to determine the content of L-ascorbic acid and nitrates in the plants. Increasing manure doses resulted in higher contents of N, P, and K, as well as decreased contents of Ca and Mg in plants of both varieties.

1. Introduction

Common basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is a highly valued herb species cultivated widely in Poland and globally due to its multifunctional applications and beneficial qualities. Numerous cultivars and types are currently grown to meet diverse culinary, ornamental, and industrial needs. While basil is primarily used as a culinary spice, it also serves as an ornamental plant in gardens. Its essential oil is extensively used in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical [1], and fragrance industries and has been shown to exert beneficial effects on mental well-being as well as digestive tract function [2,3].
Ocimum basilicum L. comprises a wide range of varieties that differ in morphology, nutritional requirements, yield potential, and the content of bioactive compounds. Considering the specific requirements of each variety allows for effective management of plant growth and nutrient composition. Appropriate fertilization enables the production of high-quality raw material with desired characteristics. Organic fertilizers provide essential nutrients and confer long-term benefits to cultivation due to their gradual decomposition, which ensures a steady nutrient uptake by the plants [4]. Compared to liquid manure, dry natural fertilizers generally have higher nutrient concentrations. Moreover, dried and processed fertilizers exhibit improved handling properties due to their composition and easier application [4,5].
Varieties of common basil. Common basil varieties differ not only in morphology but also in chemotype [6]. Their distinct aroma, coloration, and tolerance to adverse environmental conditions and diseases make them relatively easy to cultivate. Among the numerous varieties, cinnamon basil (Ocimum basilicum L. var. cinnamon) is notable for its taller plants and light purple flowers. As the name suggests, it possesses a characteristic cinnamon-like aroma and is commonly used to flavor vegetable oils, vinegars, and olive oils. Another widely appreciated variety is lemon basil (Ocimum basilicum L. var. citridora), which is medium-tall with white flowers and a refreshing lemon fragrance. The typical yield of basil is about 8–10 tons of fresh mass per hectare or 1–3 tons of dry mass, while the dry yield is 1–3 t/ha. In 2024, over 1.3 million tons of basil leaves were cultivated worldwide, with more than 62% of total production coming from India, Italy, and China.

1.1. Organic Fertilizers

Organic fertilizers, such as manure and bird droppings [7], play a crucial role in supporting the cultivation of agricultural and horticultural crops. They modify soil structure and properties, creating favorable conditions for organisms in the rhizosphere. In addition, they help prevent humus depletion, preserve its stable level as well as provide varying proportions of essential minerals such as phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and nitrogen, which are vital for plant growth and development. Nowadays, it is possible to purchase fertilizers that retain the benefits of conventional organic fertilizers while offering a modern, user-friendly form. They are processed through grinding and fractionation, and sometimes also through drying, which eliminates their irritating, peculiar odor and reduces their bulk mass. This form of fertilizer enables more uniform application and handling [5].
The influence of organic fertilizers on the fresh weight yield of common basil. Fertilization significantly influences the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the biomass obtained from cultivated herbal plants.
Natural fertilizers are rich in nitrogen, to which basil shows a strong positive response. Nitrogen not only promotes high biomass yields but also enhances chlorophyll content [8,9]. Adequate nitrogen supply via fertilization increases the essential oil content of the herb, while also affecting the contents of individual oil components, including linalool and methylchavicol, and stimulating the production of polyphenolic compounds [6,10]. Furthermore, it promotes the growth of leaf blade and stem size, leading to higher total herb yields [11,12,13]. The type of nitrogen fertilizer (N form) is a significant factor that modifies essential oil content and yield in aromatic plants. The application of ammonium sulphate at a rate of 60 kg fed.−1 at two equal doses is recommended to achieve maximum essential oil yield in Ocimum americanum L. var. pilosum [14]. Zheljazkov et al. [15], analyzing the applied doses of nitrogen in the form of ammonium nitrate, obtained an increase in the essential oil content of basil at 60 kg N·ha−1 compared to unfertilized plots. Compost, as an organic fertilizer, affects the essential oil composition in Ocimum basilicum L. in a similar way as inorganic fertilization (ammonium nitrate) [16]. Compost application in growing basil contributes not only to an increase in essential oil content, but also increases the concentration of linalool and borneol in the oil, with a simultaneous decrease in the content of methyl chavicol and 1,8-cineole [17]. In turn, nitrogen deficiency negatively affects shoot height, root length, leaf number, and plant weight. It also decreases chlorophyll content, hindering photosynthesis [18]. Organic fertilizers cover the demand for nitrogen and provide basil with other elements such as potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium, which further significantly influences the quality and quantity of the harvested material [16]. Adherence to fertilization guidelines coupled with appropriate harvesting time allow producing crop yields of satisfactory quantity and quality [9,19].

1.2. Basil Essential Oil

The primary and most valuable component of the basil plant is its essential oil, which is volatile and characterized by a strong aroma and yellowish color. This oil contains bioactive compounds such as linalool, geraniol, limonene, eugenol, and methylchavicol [20,21]. Its content in basil varies [22], typically ranging from 0.5 to 1.5%, depending on genetic factors, cultivation conditions, as well as drying and storage methods. It is also strongly affected by plant nutrition as the availability of macro- and micronutrients significantly influence its quantity and quality of the essential oil [23].
Considering the above, this study aimed to determine correlations between the applied dose of an organic fertilizer and the fresh weight yield and essential oil content of common basil. Two varieties of common basil were selected for this study: lemon basil (Ocimum basilicum L. var. citridora) (Figure 1a) and cinnamon basil (Ocimum basilicum L. var. cinnamon) (Figure 1b). Cattle manure was used as a natural fertilizer at the following doses: 5, 10, 15, and 20 g·dm3 of substrate.
Figure 1. Analyzed basil varieties: (a) lemon basil; (b) cinnamon basil (photo by Anna Król).

2. Materials and Methods

The vegetation experiment was conducted in the experimental greenhouse of the Plant Nutrition Department/Institute of Horticultural Production, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland. The experimental material consisted of plants from the Lamiaceae family: sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). Plants were grown individually in 2 L pots filled with high-moor peat, which had been limed to a pH of 6.0 using 15 g of CaCO3 per 1 dm3 of substrate. Each treatment included 10 replicates. Basil was sown on 2 April, and after the appearance of approximately 3 leaves, it was transplanted to multi-plant beds on 15 April. The plants were planted out to their permanent locations on 17 May, while a care treatment called “topping”, i.e., the removal of growth tips, was applied on 10 June. The experiment was set up in a two-factor design, in which the first factor was the basil variety, and the second was the natural fertilizer dose. Cattle manure was used as the natural fertilizer at doses of 5, 10, 15, and 20 g·dm−3 of substrate. The fertilizer was applied once; it was added to the substrate, mixed, and then the prepared substrate was used to fill the pots. Two botanical varieties of basil were analyzed: lemon basil (Ocimum basilicum L. citriodora) and cinnamon basil (Ocimum basilicum L. cinnamon). Depending on the temperature in the greenhouse and the weather conditions outside, the basil was watered with the same amount of water once, or 2–3 times a day if needed. The substrate moisture was maintained at 50–55% of the field water capacity (FWC) and the temperature was 25 °C. The raw material was harvested on 28 June by cutting the above-ground parts.

Analysis of Plant Material

Basil was harvested in the initial flowering stage of the plants. After cutting, their height was measured, and the fresh weight of the above-ground parts and the air-dry weight of the plants were determined. The fresh plant material was determined for the contents of L-ascorbic acid and nitrates via reflectometry using an RQflex apparatus, and for protein content (by multiplying the total nitrogen content by a conversion factor of 6.25). The essential oil content of the ground, air-dried herbal material was determined by distillation using a Deryng apparatus in accordance with the Polish Pharmacopoeia VII [20], and the extract content was determined by refractometry. The dried and ground plant material was assayed for total N, P, K, Ca, and Mg. The material was dried in a tray dryer with a closed air circulation at a temperature of 30 °C. The content of macroelements in the plant material was determined at the District Chemical-Agricultural Station in Lublin (Poland) by means of the following analytical methods: total N via KQ/PB-70 version 02 dated 1 December 2010; phosphorus via KQ/PB-24 version 05 dated 8 June 2017; potassium and calcium via KQ/PB-25 version 04 dated 1 March 2013; and magnesium via KQ/PB-26 version 03 dated 1 December 2010.
After the plant harvest, substrate samples were taken for analysis of N-NO3, P, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, Na content, as well as to determine pH and salinity. The content of macronutrients, pH, and EC in the substrate were determined at the Regional Chemical-Agricultural Station in Lublin using the following analytical methods: nitrate nitrogen: KQ/PB-54 version 06 dated 03. phosphorus: KQ/PB-51 version 05 date 03; potassium, calcium, and sodium: KQ/PB-52 version 05 dated 8 November 2017; magnesium: KQ/PB-53 version 04 dated 1 March 2013; chlorine: KQ/PB-55 version 05 dated 7 October 2016; pH in H2O: KQ/PB-47 version 01 dated 2 January 2014; and salinity: KQ/PB-50 version 04 dated 7 October 2016 (Table 1).
Table 1. Chemical composition of the substrate after cultivation of common basil (mg.dm−3).
The results obtained in measurements of plant height and fresh weight yield of basil were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance. The least significant difference (LSD) was determined using Tukey’s test at a significance level of α = 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Fresh Weight Yield and Height of Basil Plants

The fertilizer doses applied and the variety tested had a significant effect on basil plant height and fresh weight yield (Table 2). Increasing manure dose from 5 to 20 g of per dm3 of substrate resulted in increased plant height. Applying 20 g of the fertilizer to lemon basil and 15 g of the fertilizer to cinnamon basil enabled producing the tallest plants. One series consisted of 10 repetitions, with each repetition being a pot in which one plant grew. After the experiment was completed, the plants were cut and then weighed. The table shows the average yield per pot in grams.
Table 2. Plant height and fresh weight yield of common basil.
In the case of cinnamon basil, the highest fertilizer dose resulted in plants reaching similar heights compared to those grown using a 50% lower dose. Similar results were obtained for basil fresh weight yield. Lemon and cinnamon basil yields also increased with increasing fertilizer doses. A significant effect of the interaction between manure dose and basil cultivar on fresh weight yield was also noted.

3.2. Essential Oil Content

Essential oil content was determined in the air-dry mass of basil herb, and respective results are presented in Table 3. The essential oil content of plants depended on both the basil variety and fertilizer dose. In lemon basil, the highest essential oil content was recorded after applying 15 g of manure per dm3 of substrate (1.15% dry matter). The mean content for the variety was 1.05% dry matter. In cinnamon basil, the highest essential oil content (1.85%) was determined after applying the lowest manure dose (5 g·dm−3 of substrate). Analyzing the effect of cattle manure dose on essential oil content of basil, no significant differences were found between the individual treatments. The greatest difference was noted in essential oil content (1.3% and 1.43%, respectively) upon basil fertilization with 10 and 15 g of manure per dm3 of substrate (Figure 2a). When comparing the effect of the analyzed variety on the content of essential oil in the fresh basil herb, a significantly higher oil content was determined in cinnamon basil (mean 1.71%) compared to lemon basil (mean 1.05%) (Figure 2b).
Table 3. Essential oil content of common basil material.
Figure 2. Effect of: (a) cattle manure dose (LSD 0.05 ≤ 0.033), and (b) basil variety (LSD 0.05 ≤ 0.017) on the average essential oil content of common basil raw material.

3.3. Content of L-Ascorbic Acid, Protein, Extract and Nitrates V in Fresh Basil Herb

The content of L-ascorbic acid was determined in fresh basil herb and varied significantly depending on fertilizer dose and the variety tested (Table 3). A significant enhancement in L-ascorbic acid synthesis in plants was noted after their fertilization with a 100% higher dose of the manure compared to the initial dose in both lemon basil and cinnamon basil. The analyzed varieties showed significant differences in the synthesis of L-ascorbic acid in the raw material, i.e., 55.36 mg 100 g−1 fresh weight of lemon basil and 97.13 mg 100 g−1 fresh weight of cinnamon basil. The protein content of the fresh basil herb ranged from 7.13 to 12.63%.
The extract content of the fresh basil herb decreased with an increasing dose of the natural fertilizer. The highest extract content was recorded after manure application at 5 g·dm−3 of substrate, reaching 5.13% in lemon basil and 6.19% in cinnamon basil. The mean extract content of lemon basil was 4.17%, while in cinnamon basil it was 5.42% (Table 3).
When examining nitrate content, differences were noted between the two basil varieties. Lemon basil accumulated less nitrates, 313.97 mg kg−1 on average, compared to cinnamon basil, in which the mean nitrate content was 642.33 mg kg−1. The highest content of N-NO3 (770 mg kg−1 f.w.) was determined in cinnamon basil fertilized with 10 g of manure per dm3 of substrate. In turn, the lowest content of nitrates (220 mg kg−1 f.w.) was recorded in lemon basil fertilized with manure dose of 20 g dm−3 of substrate (Table 4).
Table 4. L-ascorbic acid, protein, extractive matter, and nitrate content of fresh basil herb.

3.4. Chemical Composition of the Raw Material of Common Basil

Chemical analysis of basil herb revealed a number of correlations influenced by the experimental factors (Table 4). Nitrogen and potassium doses introduced with the fertilizer significantly influenced the content of these elements in basil herb. The total nitrogen content in both varieties ranged from 1.14 to 2.02% dry matter, with the highest mean value determined in plants fertilized with a cattle manure dose of 20 g dm−3 of substrate, and the lowest one recorded upon fertilizer dose of 5 g dm−3 of substrate. A clear trend was observed for increasing nitrogen and potassium contents in the dry basil herb, while calcium content decreased with increasing doses of cattle manure applied to the substrate. In turn, phosphorus and magnesium contents changed to a lesser extent with increasing fertilizer doses. Analyzing the effect of basil varieties on the mineral composition of the raw material, higher nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium contents were found in lemon than in cinnamon basil. In contrast, higher calcium and magnesium contents were determined in cinnamon basil compared to lemon basil plants (Table 5).
Table 5. Macronutrient content of basil herb (% dry weight).

4. Discussion

The cultivation of medicinal plants is most often supported by organic fertilizers [12]. They contain all the macro- and microelements necessary for plants and also positively affect the development of soil microorganisms, soil structure, and substrate hydrophobicity [24]. A drawback of organic fertilizers is their slow decomposition, which results in a slower release of nutrients into the rhizosphere [25]. The study results presented in Table 2. show a significant effect of the applied manure dose and basil variety on the fresh weight yield and height of basil plants. Increasing the manure dose, regardless of the variety, positively affected the fresh weight yields, with the highest value (203.95 g plant−1) obtained for cinnamon basil fertilized with the highest manure dose of 20 g dm−3 of substrate. In combination with the above-mentioned experimental parameters, its plants were also the highest. Previous studies have demonstrated that the application of organic fertilizers positively influences the fresh and dry matter yield of spice and medicinal plants, including basil, as well as their essential oil content [26,27,28]. Gavrić et al. [29], who examined the effects of mineral, organic, and organo-mineral fertilizers on basil cultivation, reported comparable fresh matter yields when organic and organo-mineral fertilizers were applied. The highest fresh matter yield was achieved with mineral fertilization, which provides nutrients that are released most rapidly into the soil solution. In turn, Migliaccio et al. [30], who studied the effect of a natural fertilizer type on the fresh weight yield of basil, reported that it depended on the fertilizer applied and ranged from 79.5 to 135.7 g. Research conducted by Toaima et al. [31] demonstrated the beneficial effect of composted manure on the yields of various basil varieties. The beneficial effects of organic fertilization in basil cultivation may be associated with its capacity to mitigate plant stress. The present experiment was conducted under greenhouse conditions, where the microclimate is highly specific: during periods of intense sunlight, the internal temperature rises markedly above the external temperature, whereas on cloudy days, both values become comparable. Under such circumstances, the application of organic matter provides several advantages. It ensures a gradual release of nutrients, enhances the structural stability of the soil or substrate, and improves its physical, chemical, and biological properties, thereby increasing overall fertility. As a result, organic fertilization contributes to higher biomass production and stimulates the accumulation of secondary metabolites [32].
The analysis of the effects of the experimental factors on the essential oil content of Ocimum basilicum L. did not allow for unambiguous conclusions regarding the influence of fertilizer dose on the concentration of the main active compounds. Nevertheless, it was established that the cinnamon basil variety contained significantly higher levels of essential oil compared with the lemon variety (Table 3, Figure 2). The highest oil content was recorded in cinnamon basil plants, whereas the lowest was observed in lemon basil fertilized with manure at a dose of 5 g dm−3. Naiji and Souri [33], investigating the effect of manure concentration on basil cultivation, reported a decline in essential oil synthesis with increasing manure levels. At a manure concentration of 20%, basil plants contained 0.78% essential oil, whereas at 40% manure, the oil content decreased to 0.66%. The positive role of organic fertilization in supporting sustainable productivity and enhancing both the yield and quality of basil herb has been confirmed in numerous previous studies [17,34,35,36,37,38,39,40]. The fresh biomass of basil plants, representing the actual yield, was significantly higher in the case of 20% vermicompost, which did not show significant differences compared to 40% vermicompost and NPK fertilizer. The 20% vermicompost resulted in the highest percentage of essential oil content; the use of NPK fertilization and 40% vermicompost also increased this trait compared to unfertilized plants. The fresh basil herb had a high content of L-ascorbic acid (Table 3). The synthesis of this compound depended on the organic fertilizer dose and basil variety tested. Higher contents of L-ascorbic acid were determined in cinnamon basil plants compared to lemon basil, with the highest content, reaching 133.17 mg 100 g−1 f.w., found in cinnamon basil fertilized with a manure dose of 10 g per dm3.
The increasing manure dose used to fertilize basil negatively affected the extract content of the fresh herb (Table 4). The highest extract contents were determined in the plants fertilized with a manure dose of 5 g per dm3 of substrate, i.e., 5.13% in lemon basil and 6.19% in cinnamon basil.
Organic fertilizers are a source of many plant nutrients, including nitrogen, which influences both the quantity and quality of crop yield. In the present study, the total nitrogen content varied in basil plants depending on the fertilizer dose and ranged from 1.14 to 2.01% d.w. Protein content also varied as affected by both experimental factors. The highest protein content was determined in plants fertilized with the highest manure dose of 20 g per dm3, i.e., 14.19% in lemon basil and 9.19% in cinnamon basil (Table 4). Nitrate content in fresh basil herb also depended on the factors studied. An interesting correlation was observed: nitrate content in both lemon and cinnamon basil decreased with increasing manure doses. This finding contrasts with the observations of Bergstrand et al. [41], who noted that soil is more easily aerated than peat substrate, thereby facilitating nitrification and potentially leading to higher nitrate accumulation with increasing fertilizer doses. In turn, Taliban et al. [42] recorded 254 mg N-NO3 per kg of fresh weight of basil plants after applying 120 g of chicken manure per m2. These authors concluded that the type of fertilization used had a significant impact on nitrate accumulation in the basil plant material, emphasizing that after applying organic fertilizers, the plants contained significantly less nitrate compared to those under mineral fertilization and mycorrhizal inoculation. Bergstrand et al. [41], who examined the effect of different fertilizers on nitrate accumulation in basil, reported that nitrate release into the substrate was slowest following the application of organic fertilizers compared to mineral ones. However, organic fertilizers, particularly shortly after application, tend to release higher amounts of ammonia, which may negatively affect yield at increasing application rates [43]. In contrast, such a correlations was not observed in the present study, where higher doses of organic fertilizer were associated with increased basil yields.

5. Conclusions

Based on the conducted research, it can be concluded that both fertilizer dose and basil variety significantly affect the qualitative and quantitative traits of the harvested plant material. The main conclusions are as follows:
  • An increase in the fresh weight yield of both lemon and cinnamon basil was noted with the increase in the manure dose.
  • Cinnamon basil had a significantly higher essential oil content than lemon basil. The highest essential oil content was determined in cinnamon basil fertilizer with of 5 g of manure·dm−3 of substrate.
  • The highest content of L-ascorbic acid was determined upon basil fertilization with 10 g of manure·dm−3 of substrate, i.e., 70.05 mg·100 g−1 f.w. in lemon basil and 133.17 mg·100 g−1 f.w. un cinnamon basil.
  • The nitrate content of fresh basil herb varied depending on both factors studied. The cinnamon basil had significantly higher nitrate levels than the lemon basil. After fertilization with the highest manure dose tested, the nitrate content of the basil herb was significantly lower compared to the treatment with the initial fertilizer dose.
  • The chemical composition of basil plants was dependent on the manure dose. Increases in N, P, and K contents and decreases in Ca and Mg contents were observed in both lemon and cinnamon basil plants with increasing manure doses.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.D.; software, K.D.; validation, K.D., K.P., A.K.; investigation K.D.; writing—original draft preparation, K.P., K.D., A.K.; writing—review and editing, K.P.; visualization, A.K.; supervision, K.D.; figures, A.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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