Implementing 3D Printing in Civil Protection and Crisis Management

Abstract

The article examines the implementation of 3D printing in civil protection and crisis management with a focus on the educational process, while 3D printing technology enables the creation of various teaching aids that streamline teaching and enrich theoretical knowledge. The empirical part of the study is based on a quantitative questionnaire survey among students of the Faculty of Safety Engineering of the University of Žilina in Žilina, with hypotheses set in advance and forming the basis for the construction of the questionnaire. The questionnaire collected data on the subjective evaluation of 3D printing through continuous, nominal, and ordinal responses and was completed by 277 students. Statistical methods of simple and group classification, as well as t-test, ANOVA, Kruskal–Wallis and Pearson’s correlation analysis were used to evaluate the data. Statistical significance was used to determine whether observed differences and relationships were unlikely to have arisen by chance. In addition, effect size measures were used in correlation and regression analyses to assess the strength and practical relevance of statistically significant relationships. The results of the study show that 3D printing significantly contributes to improving education and preparedness in civil protection, as it allows for more material-efficient and flexible production of educational aids compared to traditional custom production. Thus, it supports the development of more resilient communities and contributes to long-term sustainability. The findings confirmed that 3D printing is a suitable tool for improving public preparedness for emergencies.

1. Introduction

The literature on civil protection presents a wide range of definitions regarding its concept, tasks, and activities. According to Act 42/1994 [1], civil protection is defined as a set of activities, measures, and tasks aimed at protecting health, life, and property, with its mission primarily involving the analysis of potential threats, the implementation of mitigating measures, and the coordination of activities during remediation works to address the consequences of emergencies, thereby ensuring both the protection of the population and the conditions for its survival. Kelíšek et al. [2] highlight the importance of population preparedness for emergencies, whereas Chovanec et al. [3] draw attention to citizens’ insufficient awareness. Šimák et al. [4], Pietrek [5], and Skrabacz and Woloch [6] concur that civil protection constitutes an interdisciplinary set of tasks executed through the joint efforts of state entities to safeguard life, health, property, and the environment from potential threats. They further emphasize the critical role of education, public information, and the practical application of these measures to ensure effective protection of life, health, and property. Civil protection education plays an important role in building the resilience of society, which is a key part of sustainable development. In this context, education focused on emergency and crisis preparedness contributes not only to security but also to the long-term social sustainability of communities. These aspects are in line with the Sustainable Development Goals, in particular Sustainable Development Goal Quality Education and Sustainable Development Goal Sustainable Cities and Communities. This study contributes to sustainability by improving education and preparedness in civil protection through innovative 3D printing applications, which enable more material-efficient and flexible production of educational tools compared to custom manufacturing, thereby supporting resilient communities and long-term sustainable development.

Civil protection and crisis management are closely linked, as they focus on ensuring security, protection, and the functioning of the state during emergencies. Crisis management is an essential part of state administration during crises and is defined in professional literature as an interdisciplinary field that deals with managing crisis situations and developing general methodologies for their resolution. As pointed out by Chovanec et al. [3], crisis management integrates multiple areas and is primarily concerned with the resolution of crises. Ivančík [7] and Ristvej et al. [8] also highlight its interdisciplinary nature, while Rehak et al. [9] in another study emphasize its role in preventing potential crises. According to Hálek [10] and Vašičková [11], it involves managing organizations to detect and analyze early warning signals of emerging crises. Despite minor differences in emphasis, the authors agree that the goal of crisis management is to effectively handle and resolve emergency events that threaten the lives and health of the population. As pointed out by Iftikhar et al. [12], crisis management can also be understood as a systematic process aimed at minimizing the impact of crises and reducing associated risks. Hadi [13] emphasizes its critical importance for any organization, particularly given the increasing frequency of extraordinary events. In contrast, by Braziotis et al. [14] Altay et al. [15] highlights the cyclical nature of crisis management, describing it as a comprehensive set of phases carried out before and during an event to mitigate negative consequences. Together, these perspectives complement the previous definitions, underlining both the systematic and operational aspects of crisis management as well as its essential role in preparedness and response.

According to Hadi [13] and Diley et al. [16], emergencies affect populations worldwide and include natural disasters such as floods, tornadoes, earthquakes and snowstorms, which pose significant risks to life, health, and property. These authors emphasize that adequate preparedness is essential to reduce potential losses. In this context, preparedness has been widely examined from a logistical perspective. As pointed out in the work of Rawls and Turnquist [17], effective emergency response depends on the appropriate location of material supplies, resources and transport logistics nodes. Similarly, Salmerón and Apte [18] developed a stochastic programming model aimed at minimizing costs while maximizing material coverage, and Geroliminis et al. [19] focused on the strategic placement of emergency relief equipment. These studies collectively demonstrate that the proper allocation and accessibility of resources significantly increase the effectiveness of emergency response. This conclusion is further supported by Arnette and Zobel [20] as well as Erbeyoğlu and Bilge [21], who emphasize that optimal resource distribution directly enhances the protection of human life and health. According to Tandon and Kumar [22] and Tönissen et al. [23], it is therefore crucial that material and technical resources are located in accessible and suitable areas to ensure timely distribution during emergencies. Within civil protection and crisis management, established procedures and methods are traditionally applied to manage crises; however, as stated by Migliorini et al. [24], the integration of new technologies is increasingly necessary to improve situational awareness and decision-making. In this regard, a growing body of research focuses on the use of 3D printing as an effective technological tool in emergency management. According to Sasson and Johnson [25], Aydin et al. [26], Kantaros et al. [27], Khan et al. [28], Petrovic et al. [29] and Stephen et al. [30], 3D printing, commonly referred to as additive manufacturing, is a process that creates three-dimensional objects through the layer-by-layer addition of material.

The advent of 3D printing has brought significant advances in emergency response and recovery, primarily due to its ability to enable rapid and cost-effective production of components from a wide range of materials, including plastics, metals, glass and ceramics. As pointed out by Schiffer et al. [31], this flexibility allows the fast creation of tools, devices and other necessary items directly in affected areas, thereby improving emergency response and relief operations. According to Guo et al. [32], a key advantage of 3D printing lies in the reduction in production time and costs compared to conventional manufacturing. The strategic need and applicability of 3D printing in emergency contexts were examined by Braziotis et al. [14], while Arbabian and Wagner [33] highlight its potential use by retailers to enhance supply chain responsiveness during emergencies. Beyond industrial production, several authors, including Jumaah [34], Sun et al. [35] and Subramanya and Kermanshachi [36], emphasize its applicability in transport and freight logistics, further underlining the role of 3D printing as a flexible and adaptive tool in emergency and crisis situations.

Following this, several authors agree that 3D printing represents a transformative advancement in crisis and emergency management, particularly in enabling rapid response and on-site assistance. As pointed out by Eid et al. [37], Leelawat et al. [38] and Talari et al. [39,40], the key benefit of this technology lies in its flexibility and immediate deployability, which significantly improves response capabilities in disaster situations. According to Savonen et al. [41] and Tatham et al. [42], additive manufacturing allows the production of a wide range of objects in varying sizes directly at or near the affected area, thereby reducing uncertainty related to the availability of critical resources for survival and support. This practical applicability has been demonstrated in real disaster contexts, such as the earthquakes in Nepal and Haiti, as documented by Goulding [43], Saunders [44] and Tönissen et al. [23]. Sun et al. [35] further highlight the use of 3D printing for producing medical supplies in these events, showing that localized production can substantially reduce both transportation time and costs. Similar conclusions are drawn by Dancel [45], Kantaros et al. [46], and Subramanya and Kermanshachi [36], who also emphasize the potential of 3D printing for the rapid creation of emergency shelters. In this context, several authors underline the importance of education and skills development, noting that training residents in 3D printing enhances cultural and community resilience and enables effective technology use during emergencies (Bibri [47]; Chatzopoulos et al. [48,49]; Kollarova et al. [50]; Novak et al. [51]; Pearson and Dubé [52]; Ratto and Ree [53]; Vones et al. [54]). A practical example is provided by the humanitarian organization Field Ready, which successfully applied 3D printing to address shortages of medical materials and supply chain disruptions after earthquakes, as reported by EEFIT [55] and Locally Productive [56].

Similarly, during the 2011 tsunami in Japan, 3D printing played an important role in the recovery process, particularly in the production of essential components and parts, helping to address material shortages and restore disrupted logistical flows. As noted by Snabes [57] and Tatis [58], the technology enabled the fabrication of specific components that would have been difficult or time-consuming to produce using conventional manufacturing methods. In addition, 3D printing was used for the creation of prototypes and models applied in reconstruction planning, which further increased its effectiveness during the recovery phase [58]. Other authors, including The 17 Goals [59], Longhitano et al. [60] and Aydin et al. [26], highlight the benefits of 3D printing in the production of devices and signage to ensure communication and signaling. This proved particularly important during Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico, when approximately 90% of mobile transmitters were destroyed, leaving the island temporarily isolated.

The literature identifies several key advantages of using 3D printing in emergency situations. As pointed out by Jumaah [34], Sun et al. [35] and Subramanya and Kermanshachi [36], one of the main benefits is the ability to produce objects and components tailored to the specific needs of affected populations, combined with high spatial flexibility of production. According to Armijo et al. [61] and Kantaros and Ganetsos [62], the most significant advantage of 3D printing in emergencies lies in its adaptability to rapidly changing conditions. This adaptability is further enhanced by the wide range of materials that can be used, allowing applications across different sectors, as discussed by Kantaros et al. [63]. In this context, Kantaros et al. [63] demonstrate that 3D printing can be applied not only to the production of medical devices but also to larger structural components. In contrast, Loy, Novak, and Diegel [64] and Manero et al. [65] primarily emphasize efficiency, speed and responsiveness, highlighting the operational benefits of additive manufacturing during emergency response.

With continuous progress, 3D printing is expected to further develop, and its integration into emergency response solutions will play an increasingly important role. The choice of material for 3D printing represents a crucial factor affecting its applicability in crisis environments, particularly with respect to temperature resistance, mechanical stress and environmental conditions, as pointed out by Wysoczański, Kamyk and Yvinec [66] and Marková et al. [67]. The aim of this article is to explain how 3D printing technology can be implemented in the field of civil protection and crisis management to support responses to emergency situations. Although this study intersects with the areas of education, civil protection, and additive manufacturing, its primary focus is on evaluating the educational effectiveness of 3D printing applications in civil protection training. This approach enables a detailed examination of student perceptions and the pedagogical value of 3D-printed teaching aids without diverting attention to broader technological or disaster-response issues.

2. Materials and Methods

This article was designed as a cross-sectional quantitative empirical survey aimed at investigating university students’ attitudes towards the use of 3D printing in civil protection education. The research employed a structured questionnaire combined with hypothesis-driven statistical analysis. The study deliberately focuses on students of the Faculty of Safety Engineering, as civil protection education constitutes a core component of their curriculum. The aim is not to generalize the findings to the wider public but to evaluate the educational potential of 3D printing in the context of civil protection training. The research examined several relationships, including demographic characteristics, previous experience with 3D printing, perceived importance of civil protection education, and students’ evaluation of the potential contribution of 3D printing technology to the educational process at the university level. The methodological framework of the study builds upon related research focused on education and crisis management, particularly the work of Marková et al. [67], Titko and Slemenský [68], and Kubás et al. [69], which employed questionnaire-based data collection and multilevel statistical analyses to investigate factors affecting population readiness, its composition, and the effectiveness of innovative educational technologies. The questionnaire included attitudinal questions that could be influenced by social desirability bias, as respondents may perceive support for innovative technologies as socially or academically favorable. To mitigate this effect, all responses were collected anonymously and without any academic or social consequences for the participants.

The study focuses on evaluating students’ opinions on 3D printing technology and its implementation in civil protection education. Educational effectiveness was assessed indirectly through self-reported perceptions and attitudes using Likert-scale items. The questionnaire was distributed to students of the Faculty of Safety Engineering at the University of Žilina (FSE UNIZA), as they receive systematic education in civil protection and crisis management, making them a suitable group to assess the potential of 3D printing as a learning tool. A total of 277 students from the 1st to 3rd year of bachelor’s studies participated in the survey. The selection of respondents assumed that FSE students possess relevant knowledge and experience in civil protection, enabling meaningful evaluation of 3D printing applications. To mitigate potential bias, participation was voluntary, anonymous, and respondents were informed of the research purpose. Some questionnaire items were optional and focused on respondents’ personal opinions regarding potential areas for the practical application of 3D printing technology. As these items were not mandatory, not all respondents provided answers. Therefore, missing data was handled at the item level. Partially completed questionnaires were included in the analysis, and only valid responses were used for each respective analysis. Items with a high proportion of missing responses were excluded from further statistical evaluation. The questionnaire contained questions related to civil protection, the educational process, and the implementation of 3D printing, with the latter being the primary focus of this study. Among the participants, 65% were men (n = 180) and 35% were women (n = 97), aged 17 to 23 years, reflecting the demographics of the target population.

The sample included respondents from all three years of the bachelor’s program. In the first year, 113 out of 265 students responded (42%), in the second year, 89 out of 209 students responded (42.5%), and in the third year, 75 out of 150 students responded (50%). The response rates were similar across years, indicating that the sample is broadly representative of the target student population.

Data were collected using an online questionnaire consisting of 17 questions divided into three sections:

• Basic information about the respondent: age, gender, study program, and year of study.
• Attitudes and perceptions: assessment of the importance of civil protection education, perception of the benefits of 3D printing, and attitudes towards its implementation in teaching.
• Preferences and evaluation of prototypes: preferred types of 3D-printed educational aids and evaluation of the presented prototype (a 3D-printed key ring).

Responses were recorded using a combination of 5-point Likert scales, dichotomous (yes/no), trichotomous, and multiple-choice questions. Likert-scale items were treated as ordinal variables and coded numerically from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”), ensuring that higher values consistently indicate stronger agreement or more positive perceptions. For statistical evaluation, Likert-scale responses were analyzed using parametric methods, as the sample size (N = 277) allowed aggregated responses to be treated approximately as interval data. In all tables, n denotes the size of the respective subgroup, while N refers to the total sample size (N = 277). Selected analyses were additionally verified using nonparametric tests (Kruskal–Wallis test), which yielded consistent results. The complete questionnaire, including item wording, response formats, and variable coding, is provided as (Appendix A). Data collection was conducted online between 10 and 17 November 2025, among students of the Faculty of Security Engineering. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and respondents completed the questionnaire individually without time constraints. The structure of the questionnaire was designed to enable verification of the predefined hypotheses, which were established prior to data collection. The core hypotheses of this study are as follows:

Hypothesis No. 1

H0: 

There is no significant difference in the perceived benefits of 3D printing between students who have completed the Civil Protection course, those who are currently attending it, and those who have not yet started it.

Hypothesis No. 2

H0: 

There is no relationship between the perceived importance of civil protection education and support for the implementation of 3D printing in teaching.

Hypothesis No. 3

H0: 

There are no differences in perceived educational benefits of 3D printing among students with different levels of experience.

For the purposes of Hypothesis No. 3, the perceived contribution of 3D printing to education was operationalized using Question 8 (“To what extent do you consider the use of 3D printing in civil protection education to be beneficial?”), measured on a 5-point Likert scale.

Hypothesis No. 4

H0: 

Attitudes toward the use of 3D printing in education do not differ significantly by gender.

The data obtained were processed and analyzed. The distribution of quantitative variables was assessed using normality tests and visual inspection. Since some variables did not meet the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variances, appropriate parametric and non-parametric tests were applied. Descriptive statistics, including counts, percentages, mean, and standard deviation, were used to summarize the data.

For group comparisons, one-way ANOVA (for variables meeting parametric assumptions), Welch’s t-test (for variables with unequal variances), and the Kruskal–Wallis test (non-parametric alternative) was applied. Relationships between variables were further examined using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and regression analysis to evaluate the strength and direction of associations. All statistical tests were conducted at a significance level of α = 0.05. The choice of statistical procedures was guided by the type of variables, their distribution, and the hypotheses being tested.

3. Results

This section presents descriptive statistics of the sample and the results of hypothesis testing. All basic information about the respondents is summarized in

Table 1. Basic information about respondents.

Respondent Identification Features	Type of Response	Count (n) = 277	Percentage
Gender	Woman	97	35%
	Men	180	65%
Age	Mean	277	20.5%
	Standard deviation		1.3%
Department	Crisis management	132	48%
	Security management	48	17%
	Fire engineering	97	35%
Bachelor’s degree year	1. year	113	41%
	2. year	89	32%
	3. year	75	27%
Completion of the civil protection course	The subject is currently visiting	127	46%
	The subject has already been completed.	39	14%
	They will still be attending the subject.	111	40%
Experience with 3D printing technology	Yes, outside of teaching	60	22%
	Yes, in teaching	30	11%
	Yes, in both cases	28	10%
	No, I have no experience.	159	57%

.

Table 1 shows the basic data about the respondents. The sample consisted of 277 students, of whom 65% were men (n = 180) and 35% were women (n = 97). The mean age was 20.5 years (SD = 1.3), and all three bachelor years were represented, with first-year students comprising 41% of the sample. 43% of respondents reported some experience (in teaching, outside teaching, or in both contexts), while 57% had no prior experience. Experience with 3D printing does not necessarily imply more positive attitudes, as students with prior experience may also recognize potential limitations of the technology.

Table 2. Summary of questions with Likert scale.

Variable	Mean	Standard Deviation	Median	Mode	Upper CI (95%)	Lower CI (95%)
Importance of CP education	4.11	0.88	4	4	4.22	4.01
Benefit of 3DP in teaching	3.32	0.93	3	3	3.42	3.21
Student support for 3DP	4.20	0.77	4	5	4.28	4.11
Implementation of 3DP	4.04	0.89	4	5	4.14	3.93
Usefulness of 3DP tools	4.01	1.03	4	5	4.13	3.89

3DP = 3D printing; 95% confidence intervals computed for the mean.

Shows the respondents’ answers, which were rated on a Likert scale from 1 to 5, with 1 representing a negative rating and 5 representing the highest positive rating. The values were mean and supplemented with standard deviation (SD), median, mode, and 95% confidence intervals.

The highest mean values were observed for items related to student support for 3D printing (M = 4.20, SD = 0.77) and the perceived importance of civil protection education (M = 4.11, SD = 0.88). The lowest mean value was recorded for the item assessing the perceived benefits of using 3D printing in teaching (M = 3.32, SD = 0.93). In addition to the reported descriptive statistics, the percentages of positive responses represent the proportion of respondents who rated the item 4 or 5 on the five-point Likert scale, indicating agreement or strong agreement with the statement. Across all items, medians ranged from 3 to 4, and confidence intervals were relatively narrow. Importance of civil protection education” refers to students’ perception of the value of civil protection education for their own development in the subject (Table 2).

After collecting the survey data, four hypotheses were tested.

Hypothesis 1:

There is a difference in the perceived benefits of 3D printing between students who have completed the civil protection course, those currently attending it, and those who have not started it.

One-way ANOVA (

Table 3. Verification of hypothesis No. 1 using the ANOVA method.

Group	Group Size n	Mean	SD	F	p-Value
I have not started/completed the subject yet.	111	3.16	0.81	4.48	0.01
I am currently attending the subject.	127	3.35	0.83
I have already completed the subject.	39	3.67	0.96

) was used to compare the perceived benefits of 3D printing among students who had completed the course, those currently attending, and those who had not started it. The analysis showed a statistically significant difference between the groups (F = 4.48, p = 0.01).

Although the dependent variable was measured using a five-point Likert scale, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare groups, as parametric tests are considered robust for five-point classifications. To verify the results, a nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis test was also conducted, which yielded the same conclusion (H0 rejected, p = 0.01). As the Kruskal–Wallis test results mirrored the ANOVA findings, the detailed table is not presented.

Hypothesis 2:

The relationship between the perceived importance of civil protection education and support for the implementation of 3D printing in this education.

The relationship between the perceived importance of civil protection education and support for the use of 3D printing in teaching was analyzed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient. A weak but statistically significant positive relationship was found (r = 0.19, p = 0.01), indicating that higher perceived importance of civil protection education is associated with greater support for the implementation of 3D printing. H0 is rejected. No regression analysis was performed, as correlation sufficiently describes the relationship between the two variables.

Hypothesis 3:

Differences in perceived educational benefits of 3D printing among students with different levels of experience.

The Kruskal–Wallis test (

Table 4. Calculation using Kruskal-Walli’s test method.

Group	Group Size (n)	Median	Mode	IQR
1	159	4	4	1
2	28	4	4	1
3	30	4	4	1
4	60	4	4	1
Total	277	-	-	-

IQR—interquarterly range.

) was used to examine whether students with different levels of experience in 3D printing perceive its educational benefits differently.

Descriptive statistics (Table 4) show that the median and mode for all groups were 4, with an interquartile range (IQR) of 1, indicating similar responses across groups. Consistently, the Kruskal–Wallis test revealed no statistically significant differences (H = 3.58, p = 0.34). H0 is not rejected.

Hypothesis 4:

The relationship between students’ attitudes toward the use of 3D printing in education and their gender.

Welch’s t-test (

Table 5. Data for Welch’s t-test.

	FIle 1	FIle 2
Average value	3.29	3.34
Variance	0.77	0.92
Observation (n)	97	180
Variety	213
t Stat	−0.53
P(T<=t) (2)	0.60

) was used to examine differences in attitudes toward 3D printing between male and female students. No statistically significant differences were found (t = −0.53, p = 0.60). H0 is not rejected.

Table 6. Evaluation of the hypotheses.

Hypothesis	Test Type	Variables	Test Value	p-Value	Conclusion
Hypothesis No. 1	ANOVA	Completion of the civil protection course and evaluation of the benefits of 3D printing	F = 4.48	0.01	H0 is rejected—the difference is statistically significant
Hypothesis No. 2	Pearson correlation	The importance of civil protection education and opinions on applying 3D printing in education	r = 0.19	0.01	H0 is rejected—the difference is statistically significant
Hypothesis No. 3	Kruskal–Wallis	Experience with 3D printing and perceived educational benefits of 3D printing	H = 3.58	0.38	H0 is not rejected—the difference is not statistically significant
Hypothesis No. 4	Welch’s t-test	Gender and the benefits of 3D printing in education	t= −0.53	0.60	H0 is not rejected—the difference is not statistically significant

below summarizes the methodology used, test statistics, p-values, and the resulting decisions to accept or reject the null hypothesis. The summary provides an overview of which relationships between variables proved to be statistically significant.

The results of the statistical analyses provide a comprehensive overview of factors related to the perception of 3D printing in education within the field of Civil Protection. Overall, the results suggest that students’ attitudes toward 3D printing in civil protection education are primarily influenced by their perception of its educational effectiveness and the importance they attribute to civil protection education, rather than by sociodemographic characteristics or prior experience with the technology.

4. Discussion

The results of this study indicate that 3D printing technology represents a promising and innovative approach to enhancing civil protection education. Overall, the findings reveal a generally positive perception of 3D printing among students of security engineering, suggesting its potential educational value within this specific academic context. However, several limitations must be acknowledged. One potential limitation of the study is the presence of social desirability bias. Some questionnaire items focused on attitudes toward innovative educational technologies, such as the perceived benefits of 3D printing or its inclusion in teaching. Respondents may have been inclined to provide more favorable answers due to the perception that supporting technological innovation is socially or academically desirable. Although the questionnaire was administered anonymously and participation was voluntary, this bias cannot be fully excluded and should be considered when interpreting the results. While 3D printing itself is not a new technology and is already implemented in various educational contexts, its application in the field of civil protection remains relatively limited. The sample consisted exclusively of students from the Faculty of Security Engineering, who are professionally oriented toward civil protection and crisis management. This specialization may contribute to more positive attitudes toward educational innovations. Therefore, the findings should be interpreted as representative of specialized civil protection education rather than students from other disciplines or the general population. Previous studies confirm that educational institutions increasingly integrate 3D printing to support experiential and practice-oriented learning [70]. The present study extends this body of knowledge by focusing specifically on civil protection education and by empirically examining students’ perceptions using hypothesis-driven statistical testing. The generally positive attitudes of FSE UNIZA students toward 3D printing may be attributed to their exposure to modern technologies during their studies and their engagement with courses related to civil protection, which likely increases openness to innovative teaching tools.

Out of the four tested hypotheses, two demonstrated statistically significant relationships. In particular, the results confirmed that students’ evaluation of the benefits of 3D printing differs depending on the completion status of the Civil Protection course, and that support for the implementation of 3D printing is positively associated with the perceived importance of civil protection education. These findings suggest that acceptance of the technology is closely linked to its perceived pedagogical value rather than external or demographic factors. The identified relationships, although statistically significant, were of weak effect size, indicating that while these factors play a role, they explain only a limited proportion of variability in students’ attitudes.

The analysis revealed a statistically significant but weak positive relationship between the perceived importance of civil protection education and support for the implementation of 3D printing (r = 0.19, p = 0.01). However, the low coefficient of determination (R² = 0.07) indicates that perceived importance explains only a small proportion of variance in support for 3D printing. These findings are consistent with previous research emphasizing the role of 3D printing in improving comprehension, engagement, and practical understanding through hands-on learning experiences by authors Chatzopoulos et al. [70], Șișu et al. [71], Chekurov et al. [72], Ullah et al. [73].

In contrast, other examined relationships—specifically those related to gender and prior experience with 3D printing—did not show statistically significant effects. This suggests that positive attitudes toward 3D printing are broadly shared among students regardless of sociodemographic characteristics or previous technical experience. From an implementation perspective, this result may be considered advantageous, as it indicates that the technology does not favor specific student groups and can be introduced inclusively across diverse educational settings.

Students’ qualitative responses further enriched the quantitative findings and helped identify concrete areas in which 3D printing could be most beneficial. Respondents frequently mentioned the creation of models representing buildings, shelters, evacuation routes, and safety infrastructure. These applications can support spatial orientation, emergency simulations, and the understanding of correct procedures in crisis situations. Similar conclusions have been reported in previous studies highlighting the advantages of 3D printing for visualization, problem-solving, creativity, and experiential learning by authors Chatzopoulos et al. [70], Șișu et al. [71], Chekurov et al. [72], Ullah et al. [73].

This study was conducted as a cross-sectional survey, which allows the identification of relationships between variables but does not permit causal inferences. Although statistically significant associations were identified, these relationships should be interpreted as correlational rather than causal. It is possible, for example, that students who support the implementation of 3D printing also tend to perceive it as effective, rather than the technology itself directly shaping these perceptions. Given the multiple hypotheses tested, a Bonferroni correction was considered (α = 0.01). After correction, the key findings related to Hypotheses 1 and 2 remained statistically significant, supporting the robustness of these results.

While the study touches upon broader aspects such as emergency preparedness and technological innovation, its primary contribution lies in demonstrating the perceived educational effectiveness of 3D printing in civil protection education. Respondents emphasized improved understanding of complex topics, increased motivation, and greater engagement in the learning process. Comparable outcomes have been documented in international studies describing 3D printing as a tool that supports skill development, active participation, and transparency in education by authors Soltes, Kubas and Stofkova [74] and Reise and Phan [75].

Despite these encouraging findings, several limitations should be acknowledged. The research was conducted at a single faculty, which limits the generalizability of the results. Moreover, the study relied primarily on self-reported attitudes and perceptions rather than objective measures of learning outcomes. Future research should therefore include respondents from multiple educational institutions and consider longitudinal or experimental designs to evaluate the actual impact of 3D printing on learning effectiveness. Another promising direction involves the development and empirical testing of specific 3D-printed teaching aids designed for emergency scenarios, shelters, and crisis simulations. Future studies should also examine the technical, organizational, and financial conditions necessary for successful implementation.

From a sustainability perspective, the findings primarily relate to the social dimension of sustainability, as improved education and preparedness enhance community resilience and adaptive capacity in emergency situations. In addition, 3D printing enables decentralized and material-efficient production of educational tools, which may also contribute to environmental sustainability by reducing waste and transportation demands compared to conventional manufacturing methods.

5. Conclusions

The study demonstrates that 3D printing represents an innovative and valuable tool for enhancing civil protection education. The research focused on students of security engineering, who represent future professionals in the field of civil protection and crisis management. The objective was not to generalize the findings to the wider population, but to examine the applicability and perceived educational value of 3D printing within specialized civil protection education. The results indicate that respondents perceive 3D-printed educational models as beneficial for learning and for improving the understanding of theoretical concepts. The findings suggest that the integration of 3D printing into the educational process can strengthen the connection between theory and practice, particularly using tangible 3D models. This aspect is especially important in civil protection education, where practical preparedness and the ability to visualize emergency scenarios play a crucial role.

Students identified 3D printing as particularly useful for creating educational aids such as models of buildings, shelters, evacuation routes, and terrain structures. These models have the potential to support learning in areas where traditional teaching aids are insufficient or limited in their ability to represent complex spatial and situational relationships. Through the implementation of 3D printing, educators can enhance clarity, engagement, and comprehension of subject matter related to emergency preparedness and crisis response. The study contributes to the existing body of literature by providing empirical evidence on the application of 3D printing in civil protection education, an area that remains relatively underexplored. Given the importance of safety, preparedness, and crisis response for society, the findings highlight the relevance of modern educational technologies in training future professionals and improving population preparedness.

From a broader perspective, the integration of 3D printing into civil protection education can contribute to sustainable development by improving educational quality, supporting social resilience, and enabling more flexible and resource-efficient educational practices. Although 3D printing has applications beyond education, this study specifically emphasizes its pedagogical value in civil protection training, particularly in terms of student engagement, comprehension, and the development of practical skills. Despite these positive findings, the study has certain limitations. It was conducted at a single faculty and relied primarily on self-reported perceptions rather than objective learning outcomes. Future research should therefore examine the direct impact of 3D-printed educational aids on students’ academic performance, assess their use in practical training exercises or real-life simulations, and compare results across multiple educational institutions. While this study did not experimentally compare 3D printing with traditional teaching methods, the findings suggest that 3D printing can serve as a complementary educational tool offering advantages such as flexibility, local production, and reduced material and logistical demands.

Overall, the study confirms that 3D printing has strong potential to enrich civil protection education and to support the development of more effective, practical, and engaging educational strategies aimed at improving preparedness and resilience in emergency situations.